SONNINO. 



800DAN. 



the oivil authority. The aroiy .Ulioned in Songaria probably consists 

 of more than 40,000 men, of whom 28,000 are quartered in Kuldiha 

 and tke MJfkboorhood. The wboU population of the country 

 probably talk abort of two million*, and three-fourths of thi number 

 Wing tribes who are very lightly taxed. The expenses 

 are much greater than the revenue*. The Chinese govern- 



DM* Mod* many good* from China, which are partly disposed of to 

 Ik* Khirgbis PiieWVi for cattle and aheep for the soldier* : a ooatidt-r- 

 able quantity of silver also i* annually received from Peking. 



//utory. After the eastern Mongol* had conquered China, in the 

 wood half of toe 13lh century, the greater part of that nation 

 etttled in UM conquered countries. Thus the population of their own 

 aatire country was considerably diminished ; and the Western Mon- 

 gols, or Ololh, also called Kalmucks, began to extend farther to the 

 east, and to increase in number*. On the downfall of the Mongol 

 in China, in 1366, the greatest number of the Eastern 

 i who had been settled in China perished in war, and only a 

 mutant returned to their native country. They found that 

 nghboun the Kalmucks were now more powerful than them- 

 selves ; but the great fame which the Eastern Mongols had acquired 

 by the exploit* of UhengU Khan and the conquest of China, kept the 

 Oloth in awe for more than two centuries. In the 17th century how- 

 ever a war broke out between the Khalkas Mongols and the Qaldan, or 

 Khan of the Oloth, who wished them to acknowledge his supremacy 

 a* he had compelled the Songares and other tribes to do. The Khalkas 

 were expelled from their country, and compelled to fly towards the 

 country occupied by the Sunnites and Tshogar, two tribes which were 

 already subject to the Mandshoos. To avoid destruction they sub- 

 mitted to the Chinese emperor (1688), and requested protection against 

 their enemies. The emperor Kang-hi sent three armies against the 



i T . 



These forces, aided by Tse-vang Arabdan, the khan of the 

 Songares, defeated the Qaldan in several engagements, so that he was 

 abandoned by nearly all his followers, and died by taking poison 

 (1697). The Khalkas Mongols now returned to the country from 

 which they had been expelled by the Oloth. On the ruins of the 

 power of the Oloth rose that of the Sougare. Tse-vang Arabdan 

 subjected to his authority all the chiefs of the Oloth proper, con- 

 quered Turkistan, obliged another branch of the western Mongols, 

 the Toorgut, to abandon the country west of Songaria, and to retreat 

 to the banks of the Volga and Don, and took possession of Tibet. 

 Thus nearly all the elevated region of Central Asia was subjected to 

 hi* sway. A war with China followed, in which the Chinese armies 

 were generally successful in expelling the Songares from the conquered 

 provinces, but they could not get possession of Songaria. The death 

 of the emperor Kang-hi and that of Arabdan occurred about the 

 same date (1723), and for some time Songaria was torn by internal 

 wars, in the course of which the throne was occupied by two usurpers, 

 called Davatsi aud Amursana. Though at first closely united, they 

 soon disagreed, and Amursana took refuge in China, where he was 

 well received, and sent back (1755) with a Chinese army, as the law- 

 ful occupant of the throne of the Songares. The expedition was 

 successful: Davatsi was taken prisoner, and died soon afterwards. 

 But Amursana did not intend to be a vassal of the emperor : he soon 

 collected a large force, and destroyed two Chinese armies which were 

 sent against him ; but be was obliged to yield to the third (1757), 

 which took possession of the whole country of Songaria and Turkistan. 

 These continual wars nearly reduced the country to a desert. The 

 Chinese wishing to re-people it, induced the Toorgut, who had taken 

 refuge in Russia, to return to their native country in 1771 and 1772. 



(Hitter, Erdiundc von Asien, vol. L ; Humboldt, Fragments 

 Analiqua.) 



SONNING. [BERMHIM.] 



80NORA. [MEXICO.] 



80NSONATE. [SAN SALVADOR.] 



SOODAN, or BELE'D EL SUDAN ('the Country of the Blacks'), 

 u a term applied by the Arab* to designate the interior of Africa; 

 but, according to the geographical po* ition of the country in which it 

 u used, this term indicates different portions of that continent The 

 inhabitants of Egypt apply it to the countries south of the second 

 cataract of the Nile (22" N. lat.), and a province has been formed of 

 the countries in these parts which have been subjected to the sway of 

 the pasha of Egypt, under the name of Bel<!d el Sudan. [SENNAAR.] 



le Arabs who trade to or are settled in Bomou, which is about 400 

 ""^iTT? "J* 1 " Egypt""! province, call 'Sudan ' the countries which 

 irtuer west, towards the middle course of the Quorra. The 

 geographer* of Europe designate all the countries along tho southern 

 edge of the Sahara from Senegambia and Sierra Leone on the west, to 

 Dar-Fur on the east, by the term Sudan. Thus Sudan extends from 



_W. long, to 25' E. long., and is 2400 miles in length, with a 

 opposed average width of about 350 miles, including an area of about 

 square mile* Its northern boundary towards the Great 

 imperfectly known. In one part, at the most northern bend 

 1 the Quorra or Joliba, the fertile country extends to 17 N. lat: 

 Uoe%M io the v '""* of Lake Tcha 



. 

 4 , io the v '""*7 of Lake Tchad, it doe* not come 



; Ut i?"** of tha cou of th . uorr ^e outhern 

 lary u formed by the Kong Mountain*, between 7 and 11 N. lat. 

 Nearly up to the end of the last century this country was only 

 known by the description* of the Arabian geographer* and of Leo 



Africanus. At that time (1790) the first European traveller, Houghton, 

 entered Sudan from the west; but he was killed in 1791. The suc- 

 ceeding travellers were Mungo Pork, in 1796 and 1797, Denham and 

 Clapperton, between 1822 and 1826, Cuillie" in 1828, and Richard 

 Lander, in 1830. The information we possess refers chiefly to the 

 western and central districts of Sudan, the eastern not having yet 

 been described by any European traveller. 



H'atern Sudan comprehends the country west of the course of the 

 Quorra, from Tiinbuctoo to its entrance into the delta at Abbazaca. 

 The southern border of Western .Sudan is formed by the Kong Moun- 

 tain*. Most of the riven that descend from this mountain range to 

 the south and north have very little water in the dry season. In the 

 eastern part of the Kong Mountains the surface generally consists of 

 a fertile soil, covered in some places with forests, but in others cleared 

 and cultivated. The forests consist chiefly of tall trees, the inter- 

 vening spaces being covered with luxuriant grasses. These forests 

 abound iu deer, antelopes, lions, leopards, elephants, wild awes, 

 buffaloes, and hyaenas ; and in the Quorra the hippopotamus is 

 common. The country, where cultivated, yields plentiful crops of 

 indigo, tobacco, yams, wheat, and other kinds of corn, rice, onions, 

 and other vegetables; and in the extensive pastures, great numbers of 

 horses, bullocks, sheep, and goats are fed. In the neighbourhood of 

 the river Quorra, the region is rather densely inhabited, aud villages 

 are numerous. There are also several large towns. 



The country extending from the northern base of the Kong Moun- 

 tains to the edge of the Sahara may bo considered as a plain, the 

 elevation being inconsiderable, and at wide intervals apart. The soil 

 of this extensive tract is chiefly gray sand, alternating in some places 

 with red sand, and frequently mixed with gravel, argillaceous earth, 

 clay, and mould. In the vicinity of the watercourses lit is subject to 

 inundations for more than six months of the year. The more distant 

 parts have the advantage of abundant rains. There are many shea- 

 trees and nedtis, the fruits of which are much esteemed by the natives; 

 and the indigo plant abounds in several ports. The more fertile tracts 

 arc cultivated. The most common objects of cultivation are maize, 

 millet, rice, tobacco, yams, onions, cotton, French beans, and water- 

 melons. The colat or gora nuts are here collected, which constitute 

 an important article of commerce all over the Western Sudan, and are 

 carried from the Koug Mountains to Timbuctoo, and even to Tripoli. 

 Domestic animals abound in most parts, especially black cattle of 

 good size, sheep, and goats ; the horses are of a small breed, except 

 at Tangrera, where they are rather large and of fine form. There are 

 also asses and abundance of poultry. Dogs, serpents, lizards, rats, 

 and mice serve as food to the natives. Fish abounds in the river.*. 

 Wild bees are numerous, and wax and honey are largely consumed, 

 and are also sent to other parts of Africa. 



In this country the month of August is extremely stormy ; and 

 rain incessantly falls. It continues to fall every day until October, 

 when though leas frequent, the showers are still heavy, and set in 

 with hurricanes from the south-east. In proportion as the rain 

 diminishes, the heat increases, and the air becomes less damp and 

 more salubrious. About the end of October the rains cease entirely, 

 the days become exceedingly hot, and the nights cool. Iu November 

 and December the weather is very fine, and the wind blows frequently 

 from the north-east and sometimes from the north. A cold north 

 wind begins to prevail at the end of December. At this season the 

 trees shed their leaves. 



The country between 10 30' N. lat. and the southern banks of the 

 Joliba River is less fertile. The surface of the country is slightly 

 undulating or a level. Several tracts which are a little depressed 

 below the general surface are swamps during the greatest part of the 

 year, whilst others are always in this state. The first are either used 

 as pasture-grounds, or rice is cultivated on them, as well as on the 

 borders of the others, and along the alluvial banks of the rivers. 

 Shea-trees and nedds are dispersed over large tracts, and here nearly 

 all the vegetable butter is collected which is consumed on the banks 

 of the Joliba as far as Timbuctoo. In a few places the baobab trees 

 abound, whose leaves and fruit supply another article of trade to the 

 countries farther north. In the more fertile tracts millet is exten- 

 sively cultivated. The JJittiecus cannabintu abounds in many places, nnd 

 ropes are made for sale at the markets on the Joliba, where these ropes 

 are used to fasten together the boards of which the barges are made. 

 The marshes are frequented by numbers of aquatic birds. From the 

 ferruginous stones, which are so frequent in this region, iron is 

 extracted, and is an article of export to the banks of the Joliba. The 

 country along the banks of this river is annually inundated to a consi- 

 derable extent. A great part of it has been converted into marshes, 

 which serve as pasture-grounds ; but on the drier parts rice, maize, 

 and other grains are cultivated. 



That part of Western Sudan which is north of the Joliba and the 

 marshes contiguous to the river is tolerably fertile to a considerable 

 distance from its banks. It is a plain, with occasional sandy hills 

 and rocky eminences. The soil produces plentiful crops of millet and 

 maize. Villages and towns are numerous. But in proceeding farther 

 north, the soil becomes less fertile, as the sand of the Sahara is fre- 

 quently thrown upon it by the strong north-eastern winds. There 

 are numerous wild animals, as elephants, lion.', panthers, leopards, and 

 wild hogs. Among the domestic animals are camels. 



