TURKEY. 



TURKEY. 



926 



Hamadan, and conquered Tabriz ; the divan then concluded a peace 

 with Tahmasp, which dissatisfied the nation. A revolt ensued, and 

 the brave 'Ali Hekim-Zade was appointed grand-vizir. Shortly after 

 this, Nadir-Khuli-Khan usurped the throne of Persia, and renewed 

 the war with the Turks, who, though at first victorious, were entirely 

 defeated under 'Abdu-llah Koprili, and compelled to renounce the 

 provinces which had been ceded to them during the reign of 

 Ahmed III. (1736). Previously to this peace differences had arisen 

 between the Porte and Russia. Feth-Ghiray, the khau of the Crimea, 

 had received orders from Constantinople to march across the steppe 

 of the Kuban, to cross the Caucasus, and to attack the Persians in 

 Georgia. The territory in his line of march was in part claimed by 

 Russia, whose commander in Daghistan, the Prince of Hesse Horn- 

 burg, declared to the khau that he considered his march through the 

 Kabarda as a violation of the Russian territory; aad as the khan 

 continued his march in spite of his menaces, he attacked the Tartan 

 as soon ss they had crossed the range of the Caucasus, and approached 

 the river Samur, near the frontiers of Daghistan. Feth-Ghiray 

 defended himself until orders came from Constantinople to return to 

 the Crimes, In 1737 Austria concluded an offensive and defensive 

 alliance with Russia, and declared war against the Porte. The 

 Austrians, defeated in several pitched battles, concluded peace with 

 the Porto at Belgrade (1739), and ceded to Turkey the western part 

 of Wallaehia. and Servn, with Belgrade. But the Russians overran 

 part of the Crimea, took C'hoczim by storm, and conquered Moldavia. 



The latter years of the reign of Mahmud I. were troubled by a 

 short war with Persia; by troubles in Egypt and at Baghdad, and by 

 the disturbances produced in Arabia by the Wahabites. Mahmud 1. 

 died a natural death in 1754. 



[1754-1757.] The short reign of Oeman III., brother of Mahmud I. 

 is not remarkable for any events of importance, except some diplo- 

 matic transactions with Prussia. 



[1757-1773.] Us was saceeeded by Mustapha III., son of Ahmed III. 

 ThU prince took an active share in the administration. The increas- 

 ing power of Russia induced him to declare war against the empress 

 Catherine II. The pretext for this war was to save Poland from rain 

 IJMiif.il Russian interference in her civil troubles. The nt idea of 

 dismembering Poland however was formed by the same Sultan, 



- - - t>-I_ * ** _ . *"" ~ 



Mnstapha III., at whose 

 to the A 



.V 1 U.,:f 



r. Baron Thugut, in a 

 divide Poland between the Sultan and the < 



.to 



Joseph II. This 



proposition, rejected by Austria, was mad* ten months before Prince 

 Henry of Prussia, who is generally believed to be the first author of 

 that project, suggested the partition of Poland to Cstherine. 



War was declared in 1788. It was glorious for Russia sad most 

 disastrous for Turkey. The Russian field-marshal Runsanxow took 

 all the foiimsjiii between the Danube and the Dnieper, sad the who)* 

 country between these two rivers fell into the hands of the Russians. 

 They overran the Crimea, and after having conquered the island of 

 Taman, crossed the strait and took Kertch, Yenikale, and KsflU in 

 177 1. The khan Maksud-Ghiray abandoned his capital Bikje-Sera., 

 and fled to Constantinople, and the Russians had Shahln-Uhiray 

 eteoted in his place. In the beginning of the war, a Russian feet, 



by Spiritow, Alexis Orlow, and Elphinstooe, left Kron- 

 sUdt for the Mediterranean, proclaimed the independence of the 

 Greeks, and in 1770 destroyed the Turkish fleet in the bay of Chesme, 

 the tjriassst disaster which had befallen the navy of Turkey sine* the 

 batik of Lepanto. A truce followed at the interposition of Austria, 

 aad sosysssn took place at Fokshan and Bnkarest ; but the negotia- 

 tions proved abortive, and hostilities recommenced in 1773. The 

 Turks were again beaten at Rosjuk and Kainarji, and although the 

 seraskcr Osman-Pasha obtained considerable advantages over the 

 Russians at Silistria, Ruinanxow defeated him in his turn at Kiranu in 

 Bulgaria. Shortly afterwards Sultan Masatuha 111, died (Dec. 24, 177:8). 



[1773-1789.1 'Abdu-1-Hamid I., or Ahmed IV., son of Ahmed III., 

 (uoceednl. Field- Marshal Rumanxow continued his victories: his 

 ga;l sis, Kamenski and Snwarow, defeated the Turks at Bssarjik and 

 Koslije, and in the month of July Kamenski entering the passes of 

 the Balkan besieged the grand-vizir Musa Oghli. The Porto now 

 yielded to the propositions of Russia, and peace was concluded in 

 July, 1774, at Kuchuk-KainarjL By this peace Russia obtained the 

 Great and the Little Kabarda, the fortresses of Azof. Kilburun, 

 Kcrtoh, and Yenikale ; the country between the Bog and the Dnieper ; 

 the free navigation of the Black Sea, and a free passage through the 

 Bosporus and the Dardanelles; the co-protectunhip over Moldavia 

 and WaUackia; and the protectorship over all the Greek churches 

 within the Turkish empire. The khanat of the Crimea was declared 

 independent, but it soon became a prey to Russia. Three years after- 

 wards ths Porto was obliged to cede the Bukowina to Austria. 



After Catherine had united the Crimea with her empire, immense 

 preparations for war with Russia were made throughout the Turkish 

 empire, sod Catherine in her turn concluded an alliance with Austria. 

 The Porte declared wr in 1787. Her armies obtained some advan- 

 tages agaiost the Austrian*, but the Russians defeated the Turks and 

 took Oenkow by storm in 1738. Sultan 'Abdu 1-Hamid died soon 



[178-1807.] Scllra III., son of Mustapha III., and nephew of 

 Abdu-I Hamid, who succeeded, was one of the most enlightened 



of the east, but his enlighteument did noi ward off heavy disasters 

 from his country. The war continued : the Turks were beateu at 

 ; Martinestie by the united Austrian* and Russians ; the Austrians took 

 Belgrade ; the Russians, Bender and Isma'il ; and Turkey would have 

 been overrun, but for the intervention of England, Prussia, and Sweden. 

 Thus peace was concluded in 1791 at Sziatowa with Austria, which 

 restored her conquests to Turkey ; and with Russia in 1792 at Jassy. 

 By the peace of Jassy the Porte consented to the incorporation of the 

 Crimea with Russia, and the Dniester became the frontier between 

 the two empires. Sultan Selim now began his work of reformation, 

 but during a long period his efforts were checked by troubles in Syria 

 and Egypt : by the rebellion of Paswan Oghlu, pasha of Widdin ; and 

 by the increasing power of 'Ali Pasha of Janina. The conquest of 

 Egypt by Bonaparte led to a war with France. The grand-vizir, 

 Yusuf Pasha, was routed in the battle of Abukir, and his army was 

 completely destroyed by the French, but Egypt was taken by the 

 English, who restored it to the Porte in 1S03. Previously to this, 

 Selim had conclude. 1 an alliance with Russia, Naples, and England, in 

 consequence of which a united Turkish and Russian fleet took posses- 

 sion of the Ionian Islands, which, conformably to a treaty concluded 

 between Selim and the emperor Paul, were constituted into a republic 

 (1800). Selioi acquired the protectorship of this uow republic on 

 condition of consenting to the incorporation of the kingdom of Georgia 

 with Russia. Peace with France was concluded in 1S02, France 

 acquiring the free navigation on the Black Sea, a privilege which was 

 noon afterwards granted to England and to several other European 

 powers. Selim at last began bis reforms. He put his forces on a 

 footing similar to that of European armies ; introduced several changes 

 into the system of taxation, and into the administrative divisions of 

 the empire ; he gave a new organisation to the divan ; but in order to 

 fill the treasury he debased the money. In the meantime the jealousy 

 of England and Russia was excited by the increasing influence f the 

 French ambassador, Count Sebastian! ; and a war broke out between 

 Turkey and Russia, assisted by England (December, 1806). Admiral 

 Duckworth forced the passage of the Dardanelles, and threatened to 

 bombard Constantinople, but fearing that bis retreat would be cut 

 off; sailed back to the Mediterranean. The Russians, on the other 

 hand, made continual progress on the Danube. The defeats of the 

 army were considered by the people as a conaequenca of the new 

 organisation ; the Janissaries breaking out in rebellion, occupied Pers, 

 and directed their ordnance against the seraglio. The Mufti joined 

 their party, snd by a fctwa declared " that Sultan Selim 111. had 

 forfeited the throne because he had procreated no heir, and introduced 

 the Nixam Jedid and several other innovations." Thus Selim III. 

 was deposed, and confined to the seraglio. 



[1807-1808.] Mustapha IV., son of 'AbJu-l-Hamid I., succeeding, im- 

 mediately abolished the reforms of his predecessor. The Turkish fleet 

 was entirely defeated by the Russians off Lemaos, aad terror spread over 

 Constantinople. Mustapha Bairaktar, pasha of Rustscbuk, appeared 

 suddenly with an army before the capital, and demanded the deposi- 

 tion of Mustapha, The murder of Selim, by order of Mustapha IV., was 

 the first consequence of this bold stop ; but the pasha entered Constan- 

 tinople, and Mustapha was deposed. 



[1S04-1840.J Mahmud IL, the son of 'Abdu-1-Hamid I., and the 

 brother of Mustapha IV., was instructed for sometime before his acces- 

 sion by the deposed Sultan Selim III., in the principles of reform 

 necessary for Turkey. He was indebted for his aecessiou to Mustapha 

 Bairaktar, who, after having been appointed grand vizir, re-established 

 the Nixam Jedid. The Janissaries again revolted, and they stormed 

 the seraglio and the barracks of ths new troops (Seyuien). To save 

 the empire, Mustapha Bairaktar put to death the deposed Sultan, 

 Mustspha IV., and then blew himself up, together with crowds of tho 

 Janissaries. Mahmud owed his life to the circumstance of bis being 

 the only adult descendant of Osman ; and to secure himself on hia 

 throne, he put to death the infant sou of Mustapha IV., and ordered 

 four pregnant slaves of the deposed Sultan to be drowned in the 

 Bosporus. Compelled to yield to the claims of the Janissaries, he 

 abolished the Nizam Jedid. He concluded peace with Eugland in 1809, 

 and continued the war against the KJI~~. who were forced to retire 

 beyond the Danube. Internal troubles divided the forces of the Sultan. 

 Tho Servians however, commanded by Ciwrny George, and supported 

 by Russia, shook off the Turkish yoke ; the pashas of Widdin, of 

 Damascus, of St. Jean d'Acre, of Trebizond, of Haleb, of Baghdad, of 

 Lstakia, and several others, were in revolt ; 'Ali, pasha of Janina, 

 was independent in Epirus, and aimed at the possession of Greece ; 

 and Mehemet Ali in Egypt was layiug the foundation of a hereditary 

 and all but independent power. Under these circumstances the Sultan 

 concluded with Russia the peace of Bukanst (1812), by which the 

 Porte ceded the country east of the Pruth, Bessarabia, with the princi- 

 pal mouth of the Danube, and part of the eyalet of (Jhildir in tho 

 Caucasus. During the ensuing years the Sultan effected several 

 radical reforms, which have rendered his name famous in Europe. 

 The destruction of the power of 'Ali, pasha of Janina, was a great 

 triumph, but the insurrection of the Greek < and their final deliverance 

 was a fatal blow to Turkey. Several European powers took the Greeks 

 under their protection. The Turkish navy was destroyed in the battle 

 of Navariu", October 20, 1827, by the combined fleets of England, 

 France, aud Russia; and Greece was erected into an independent 



