TURKEY. 



TURKJSTAN. 



M 



Subse- 



i udsr Kfaf Otbo, princ* of the houM of Ilavaria. 



to IMS ("hn to quell a turbulent revolt he sacrificed his 



i wife ud MTml of hi* beat officers), Mahmud succeeded in 



Wl,,,j|M Uw Janissaries, and with the downftU of this miliury body, 

 vhkk WM one* the bulw>rk of UM nnpirc, brgiot nw era in the history 

 of Turkey. Strious differences with Russia on account of Moldavia 

 sdWaUaflU 



; u . 



rttled by the treaty of Ak-krman in 1826 ; but 



Mahmod, baring shortly afterward* succeeded in finishing the reform 

 of his army, deeUn*! European interrention in the affairs of Greece, 

 which waa then atill in insurrection. Thus war broke out with Russia 

 in 1828. In the second campaign, field-marshal DiebiUoh defeated 

 the main army of the Turks at Shumla, and took Adrianople. At 

 the same tint* field-marshal Paskiswicx conquered Era rum in Asia. 

 Mahtnud oooeiaded the peace of Adrianople (1829), by which Bosssa 

 acquired parts of the eyalets of Uhildir and Kara towards the Caucasus, 

 and the fortress of Anapa near the mouth of the Kuban ; and the 

 SulUn recognised the independence of Greece ; Moldavia and Wallachia 

 acquired an independent administration, guaranteed by Russia; Servia 

 was raoognUed as a vassal state of the Porte ; the Sultan had to pay 

 ten millions of ducats ; and the Russians acquired the right of occupy- 

 ing Moldavia, Wallachia, and the town of Silistria, until the payment 

 of this sum. In 1831 the Sultan attacked Mehemet Ali, pasha of 

 Egypt (who was aiming at establishing his independence of the Porte) 

 in Syria, but his armies were defeated ; and in the following year 

 Ibrahim-Pasha advanced as far as Kutsyah, about 130 miles distant 

 from Constantinople. Peace was concluded in 1833, at Koniah, by 

 which Mehemet Ali, who bad held the eyalet of Cnndia since the war 

 against the Greeks, acquired all Syria, and Ibrahim-Pasha was invested 

 with Adani as Mutesellim. In this war Constantinople was saved by 

 the intervention of the emperor Nicholas of Russia, and a Russian 

 army was transported by sea to Asia Minor to stop the progress of 

 the victorious Ibrihlm. A consequence of this assistance was the 

 treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833), by which the Porte engaged herself 

 not to allow the passage of the Dardanelles to any enemy of Russia. 

 In 1835 a Turkish fleet took possession of Tripoli, which thus again 

 became dependent on Turkey. Mahinud II. was next engaged in a 

 Dew war with Mehemet Ali ; his armies were totally defeated at the 

 battle of Nerib by Ibrahim Pasha, Juue 24th, 1S39. Mahmud II. died 

 on the 1st of July following. 



Abdu-1-Mejid, son of Mahmud II., ascended the throne of Osman 

 in his 16th year. The loss of the battle of Nezib, the treachery of 

 the Capudan pasha, who deserted to Mehemet Ali with the whole of 

 the Turkish fleet, and the advance of the victorious Ibrrthim, seemed 

 to foreshadow the immediate dissolution of the Turkish empire. This 

 disaster was prevented however by the treaty of London (July 15, 

 1840), in fulfilment of which an Austro-English fleet bombarded and 

 took Acre, Sidon, and several other towns on the coast of Syria, which 

 Ibrahim Pasha was obliged to evacuate. Negotiations for peace soon 

 followed, which terminated in the restoration of Syria to the Porte, 

 aud the recognition of Mehemet Ali as hereditary pasha of Egypt 

 and its dependencies, upon payment of an annual tribute. 



[1840-1855.] On the death of Mahmud II., the old Turkish party, 

 op|HMed to all innovations, and especially to all imitations of the 

 polity of Christian states, hoped that no more' would be heard of 

 reform. lint their hopes were blasted by the appearance of the 

 Hattisberif of Qulhanc, dated Nov. 3, 1839, and countersigned by 

 Bssahid Pasha, which contained guarantees for the life, property, and 

 honour of all the subjects of the Sultan, irrespective of person or 

 religion, and promised the abolition of the arbitrary recruiting system, 

 aud the introduction of an impartial system of taxation. The issue 

 of this charter threw the empire into commotion ; the old Turks, 

 headed by Risa Pasha in the capital (who was accused of being under 

 the influence of Russia), made a formidable opposition to the execu- 

 tion of the decree ; the Turkish subjects of the Sultan, brought up 

 iu principles of ascendancy and contempt for Christians, rose in 

 insurrection to defend their privileges. The Christians of European 

 Turkey, by far the most numerous class of the subjects of the 

 Sultan in that part of the empire, long groaning under oppression, 

 wre accustomed (and taught) to look for protection and deliverance 

 to Russia. France had to interpose frequently (but never offensively 

 to the Porto) to protect the Christians of the cast ; and the English 

 and Austrian ambassadors at the Sublime Porte embraced every 

 opportunity of keeping up the influence of their several governments. 

 Thus, not only did foreign nations interfere in the internal administra- 

 tion of the empire, but their ambassadors seemed to be a set of 

 player, with Turkey for a chessboard. The fair execution and firm 

 establishment of the system mooted in the Hattisherif, would have 

 put an end to this stats of things, by giving the Christian subjects of 

 tb protection of law, and depriving them of all excuse 

 "" ** "* ""ing foreign protection. Russia could never coax a 

 psopki to take shelter behind her shield who lived secure under the 

 r law. The Sultan's government it is true has given many 

 uxuoaUons of perseverance in reform, and has issued many orders in 

 furtherance of the system (among others one in 1856 for the reception 

 Jan evidence in the courts of justice), but the fact is umleni- 

 abU- that the central gorernnwnt is not able to enforce the tanziinat 

 in the provinces. 



A fine instance of the noble generosity that lies at the bottom of 



the Turkish character was exhibited to the world in th refusal of tho 

 Sultan Abdu-1-Mejid to surrender the Hungarian refugees to the 

 imperious demands of Austria and Russia in 1849. Nevertheless the 

 influence of Russia, however it might diminish at court, was rapidly 

 extending among the Christian population of the Porte. Indeed, from 

 the mere terms of the treaties of Kainarji, Adrianople, and Unkiar- 

 Skelessi, it is clear that Russia was ever drawing the noose of political 

 dependence closer and tighter round the neck of Turkey. The crisis 

 seemed to arrive, when in 1853 the Czar Nicholas, through his minister 

 Menzikoff, demanded openly the protectorate of the Christian subjects 

 of the Sultan, and even tho right to adjudicate in certain cases of 

 dispute ; and insolently occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, as a 

 ' material guarantee ' for compliance with his demands. In conse- 

 quence of this, a Turkish army under Omar Pasha occupied the Balkan 

 and the fortresses of the Danube ; and French and English fleets cast 

 anchor in Besika Bay. In October following the Porte declared war 

 against Russia, and appealed to France and England for aid. In the 

 campaign that followed in Little Wallachia the Russians were on every 

 occasion defeated by the Turks ; but in November the Russian fleet, 

 issuing from the harbour of Sevastopol, attacked aud utterly destroyed 

 the Turkish fleet in the roads of Sinub. In the following March (1854) 

 the Russians crossed tho Danube, and seized the fortresses in tho 

 Dobrudscha ; and about the same time England and France declared 

 war, and the fleets entered the Black Sea. On the 15th of June tho 

 Russians, after great efforts and a vast loss of men, raised the siege of 

 Sih'stria (French and English armies now appearing in Turkey, 

 encamped at Varna), and retreated across the Danube. The Turks also 

 crossed the Danube. The Russians were defeated at Giurgevo, and soon 

 after evacuated the principalities, which, in accordance with the terms 

 of a treaty with the Porte, were occupied by Austrian forces. Mean- 

 while the French and English fleets entered the Black Sea, bombarded 

 Odessa, and forced tho Russian fleet to take refuge in the harbour of 

 Sevastopol An Anglo-French army lauded in the Crimea on Sep- 

 tember 14, 1854, under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord 

 Raglan. The battle of Alma followed on the 20th, iu which tho 

 Russians under Prince Menzikoff were utterly defeated by the allies, 

 and the road was open to Sevastopol. To secure ready communication 

 with their fleets however the allied army, by a flank march, seized 

 upon the harbours of Balaklava and Kamiesch, and the southern side 

 of Sevastopol was invested on the 26th of September, the Russians 

 having in the interim, by sulking seven men-of-war at the mouth of 

 the harbour, blocked up the entrauce by sea to this great naval and 

 military arsenal. Here, on the dreary heights of Sevastopol, throughout 

 the terrible winter of 1854-5, the allies maintained the hard struggle 

 and obstinate siege against a skilful foe within and a countless Russian 

 army without, humbling the name aud prestige of Russia by the vic- 

 tories of lukerinauu and Balaklava ; and kept the eyes of the world 

 fixed upon the spot where the whole interest of the war was now 

 concentrated throughout the entire spring aud summer of 1855, 

 electric agency flashing to all parts of Europe tidings of losses and 

 sufferings often, of defeat never, and of many a brilliant success (not 

 least of which was the victory of Tchernaya, August 16, in which the 

 Sardinians, now numbered among the allies, wou their spurs) ; until 

 at last, after a long bombardment, the French captured the Malakotf 

 tower on the 8th of September, and the allies occupied the southern 

 side of Sevastopol. 



(Hammer, Geschichte dei Oamanischen Reiches ; Des Osmanuchcn 

 ReiclteiStaattrerfatiiuny; Knolles; Thorton; Slade; Urquhart, Turkey 

 and iU Retonrcei ; Napier, Tfte War in Syria ; Marsigli, Stato Militarc 

 delf Imperio Oltomanno; D'Ohsson, Tableau, G(niral dc I Empire 

 Ottoman; Tott, M (moires tur let Turct et les Tartan; Ubiciui, LeUrci 

 r la Turquie ; Official Papert.) 



TURK'S ISLAND. [BAHAMAS.] 



TURKISTAN, or Independent Tarlary, a region of Central Asia, 

 inhabited by many tribes of Tartar race, extends from about 36 to 

 55 N. lat., and from 52 to 89" E. long. It is bounded N. by Ru-wli, 

 E. by China, S. by Afghanistan and Persia, aud W. by the Caspian 

 Sea. 



Lake Sir-i-Kol, situated in 37 27' N. lat., 73 40' E. Ion?., on the 

 high table-laud of Pamir, near the southern frontier of Turkistan, 

 appears to be 15,600 feet above the level of the sea. It is bordered 

 by hills on three sides; those on the south rise to the estimated 

 height of 3500 feet above the level of the lake. [BADAKSHAN ; Oxus.] 

 Near Hazrat-Iuiam, in 69 E. long., the bed of the river is said to be 

 only 500 feet above the level of the sea, and here are its lowest fords. 

 As far as the meridian of OS" E. long., the passes across the mountain 

 range which extends south-west from Sir-i-Kol do not siuk lower than 

 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. Twenty-five miles W. from 

 the lake the bed of the Amu is 1200 feet below its level ; 35 miles 

 farther west it is only 10,000 feet above tho sea. The village of 

 Robat, on the banks of a southern affluent of the Amu, 60 or 70 

 miles W. from this latter point, is 8100 feet above the sea. Th 

 of the pass east of Talishkan is 6600 feet above the sea. 



These elevations indicate that the general level of the land south of 

 the Amu above its lowest fords immediately attains a high level ; it is 

 in fact an elevated plain furrowed and intersected by numerous deep 

 narrow valleys down which flow the Kokcha and Kunduz rivers and 

 their affluents. In the low ridge at the east end of Sir-i-Kol the 



