833 



TURKISTAN. 



TUSCANY. 



931 



Bilk and cotton ; the Pamir and Hindu Kush supply furs, all the oases 

 large quantities of fruit and grain ; metals are raised and smelted in 

 various localities ; the steppes supply beasts of burden and for food ; 

 and at Kokand and Bokhara silk and cotton stuffs are manufactured. 

 The traces of former cultivation which abound in so many places, are 

 proofs of the extent to which this transit-trade was once carried. 

 The present lawless and unsettled state of the greater part of Turkistan 

 is the consequence of the decline of this trade, not its cause. These 

 now deserted sites continued to flourish iu the times of Tamerlane 

 and Tshinghia-Khan (Genghis-Khan) ; they have become waste aud 

 desolate since the discovery of the route by sea from Europe to India 

 and China. There is however still a considerable trade carried on in 

 these regions. Caravans from Bokhara to Russia proceed by way of 

 Khiva to the Lower Ural, carrying the products of India, Kashmir, 

 and Tartary, to Niahnei-Novgorod. ;The trade between Bokhara and 

 Russia is more extensive and valuable than that from the south of 

 Hindu-Rush. Next in importance to the trade with Russia is that 

 carried on with Kasbgar. A caravan is annually dispatched by way 

 of Kokand to that city, and here the interchange of commodities with 

 the Chinese i* effected. A branch of this trade goes up the valley of 

 the Upper Oxus to Kanbgar. Kokand is an entrepot of the trade 

 between Bokhara and Kashgar, but it is also visited by Russian fur 

 caravan* on the Russian frontier. Kumiuz has little trade : it lies off 

 tile direct line of commerce from Bokhara to the Indus, aud the diffi- 

 culty of the road across the high land of Pamir makes merchants 

 prefer the northern pass of Terek in travelling between East and West 

 Turkistan. Kaahgar and Yarkand, lying at the intersection of the 

 great line* of traffic which connect Russia with Tibet and Kashmir, 

 and China with West Turkistan and Tibet, and being moreover 

 situated in productive countries, are the centre* of an active and 

 lucrative trade. Even the Kirghiz and Kassaks of the northern steppes 

 of Turkistan have a considerable barter trade. They exchange camels, 

 oxen, hones, sheep, goats, wool, hides, horns, and furs, for manu- 

 factured goods, grain, and flour. Their principal dealings are with 

 the Russian* and Chinese; with the former at Uralsk, Orenburg, 

 Truitzk, Omsk, Semipolatinsk, Ust-Kamenogorsk, and some inter- 

 mediate frontier forts, from the middle of June to the beginning of 

 November; with the latter at Hi and Tshugutohak or Tarbagatai. 

 They also visit Khiva, Bokhara, Kokand, and Tashkent! to exchange 

 their raw material for grain and clothing ; and pming caravan* keep 

 up a petty traffic with the tribe* they meet in crowing the desert, 

 while more adventurous trader* make the desert iUelf the scene of 

 their (peculations. 



Alexander crossed Western Turkistan from the western termination 

 of the Hindu-Kush by the sites of Balkb, Kurshi, and Suuarcand, 

 to the south-west curve of the Sir-Deria. After his death the Grecian 

 dynasty of Bactria appear* to have ruled the country as far north as 

 the Aral till about 120 years before the commencement oflhe Christian 

 era. [BACTRIA.] The Greek power north of Hindu-Kush was then 

 subverted by Scythian invaders from the east, who in their turn were 

 overthrown by the Parthian kings, about the time of the birth of our 

 Saviour. The Parthian kings introduced the worship of fire, of which 

 religion trace* are (till everywhere to be met with. The early historians 

 of the Chinese remark that upon reaching the country around Lop-Nor 

 the Mongol tribe* are succeeded by a race with long or ' horse like ' 

 faces. The Lop-Nor continues till the present day the south-east 

 frontier of the Turkish race. In 669 the ambassadors of the younger 

 Justinian found the most powerful of the Turki-h tribe* Mated around 

 the Altai, and Turkish horde* bad pushed their encampments a* far 

 west a* the Caspian. When the kalils succeeded to the Persian 

 throne, they found the frontier of Iran extending beyond Samarcand, 

 and for a time they kept it there. The conquest* of the Mongol chiefs 

 who overthrew the kalifate broke down this frontier, and opened the 

 way to successive incursion* of nomad horde* from the east The 

 first prince* who inherited the power of Genghis-Khan were Mongols; 

 but the Turkish or Tartar tribe* would appear to have predominated 

 in their armies. All the Turkish tribe* who have played a conspicuous 

 part in history embraced at an early period the Mohammedan religion. 

 Of the tribe* in Turkistan, the Kaasaks, who occupy the north-western 

 rteppes, are probably the oldest settlers. The Little and Middle 

 Horde* may be descendant* of those who wandered in the same 

 region* in the 6th century. The Great Horde, the mountain Kirghiz, 

 and the Turks of Chinese Tartary, received a reinforcement from the 

 Siberian Turks, who submitted to Russia in 1606, emigrated from its 

 territories in the beginning of the 16th century, and settled among 

 their independent brethren to the south. The origin of the name 

 Turkoman is difficult to ascertain. The Turkomans are the Turkish 

 tribe* who in the llth and 12th centuries crossed the Amu and 

 invaded Persia ; the name is common to those who still inhabit Turkis- 

 tan with many tribes in Persia and the Ottoman empire. The Uzbeks 

 are a mixture of the descendants of the Uigur and Naiman, Turkish 

 tribe* who originally inhabited the country from the north-east of 

 Lop-Nor to Kashgar, and from Ushi to Khotan, and who figure in the 

 anoals of China, They crossed the Sir-Deria in the beginning of the 

 16th century, and spread terror and desolation wherever they came. 

 * They an at present nutter* in Kumiuz, Kokand, Bokhara, Khiva, 

 and the oaten to the west of Bolkb. In the seats of an ancient civilisa- 

 tion, inch a* Bokhara and others, we find the Turk* of Turkistan 



raised to the average level of Mohammedan civilisation ; the nomad 

 tribes appear to be much in the same state that their ancestors were 

 at the time when history first takes notice of them. 



TURNHAM GREEN. [MIDDLESEX.] 



TURNHOUT. [ANTWERP.] 



TURRIERS. [AlPES, BASSES.] 



TURRIFF. [ABEBDEENSHIBE.J 



TURSA. [BASILICATA.] 



TUUTON. [LANCASHIRE.] 



TUSCALOOSA. [ALABAMA.] 



TUSCAN APENNINES. [APENNINES.] 



TUSCANY (Totcana), a grand-duchy of central Italy, situated 

 between the main ridge of the Apennines and the Mediterranean. 

 It is bounded W. by the sea and the Sardinian territories, N. by the 

 duchies of Parma and Modena, and by the States of the Church, and 

 K. and S. by the States of the Church aud the Mediterranean sea. 



Tuscany has a breadth of about 95 miles from west to east, from 

 the sea-coast near Leghorn to Borgo San Sepolcro on the banks of the 

 Upper Tiber, which part of the valley of the Tiber belongs to Tuscany. 

 There is also a mountainous tract belonging to Tuscany on the 

 northern slope of the Apennines, extending to within a few miles of 

 Faenza and Forli. This district, which is styled Romagna Grau- 

 Ducole, contains the sources and upper course of a number of streams 

 which flow towards the Adriatic. With this exception, the waters 

 of the grand-duchy of Tuscany flow southward to the Mediterranean. 

 The principal rivers of Tuscany are, beginning from the north 1, 

 the Magi a, which flows through the Tuscan district of Luuigiona, 

 and afterwards enters the Sardinian state ; 2, the Serchio, which flows 

 through Garfagnana and Lucca ; 3, the Arno, which, with its numerous 

 affluents, including the Chiana, drains more than one-third of Tuscany ; 

 4, the C'ecina, which drains the valley of the same name ; 5, the 

 Ombrone, the principal river of the province of Siena ; 6, the Albegna, 

 which flows for about 36 miles through the southern part of the 

 Maremmc, and enters the sea north of Mount Argentoro ; 7, the Fiora, 

 which flows through the border district of Santa Fiora, Pitigliano, 

 and Sovana, and then enters the States of the Church. 



The territory of Lucca fell to Tuscany in 1847. [LuccA.] The 

 Grand-Duchy is divided into compartimenti, or provinces, as in the 

 following table: 



The surface of Tuscany present* four different regions: 1, tho 

 highlands of the Apennines, which skirt the grand-duchy on the 

 north and north-east : 2, the hilly tract, which forms the greater port 

 of the province of Siena, between the valley of the Chiana on one 

 ride and that of the Arno on the other, and which slopes on the south- 

 west towards the lowlands of the Maremue. The Ombrone forms 

 the principal drain of this extensive plateau, which is intersected by 

 rather high ridges, some of which are ramifications of the great 

 Apennine Chain, whilst others, like Monte Amiata and the mountain 

 of Radicofani, are of volcanic formation. The lower lulls are of the 

 description called ' Subapennine :' 3, the great valley of the Arno, 

 with the lateral valleys of the Chiana, Elsa, Era, and other affluents. 

 This constitute* the finest, most productive, and most densely 

 inhabited part of Tuscany : 4, the maritime plains, or Maremtne. 

 There four regions arc noticed under ARNO; CHIANA, VAL M; 

 FLORENCE; GARFAONAKA; LUCCA; MAREHME; PISA; SIENA, to. 



About one-sixth part of the area of Tuscany is planted with vines 

 and olive-trees ; another sixth is cultivated as arable land ; nearly 

 two-sixths are either forests or plantations of chestnut-trees, which 

 afford food to the population of the mountains; and nearly as much 

 again is pasture laud, chiefly natural pasture. There is a class of 

 tenant* who hold their tenements by ' livcllo," a kind of life-estate 

 for four generations, paying a fixed yearly rent either in money or 

 kind to the owner. When the fourth generation is about to expire, 

 the contract is often renewed by mutual agreement. But the most 

 common way of letting laud is on the ' metayer ' system, by which 

 the farmer finds the seed and implements, and gives the owuer half 

 the produce in kind. The landlord stock* the farm, and a valuation 

 is given to the farmer, who is to make all good on leaving. 



Tuscany imports some corn yearly to supply its own consumption. 

 The principal article* of produce are wine, oil, of which a quantity is 

 exported; and silk, which is also an article of export both in its raw 

 and in its manufactured state. The other articles of native produce 

 exported are fruit of various sorts, lambskin* and kidskins, potash, 

 timber, cork, juniper-berries, marble and alabaster, iron from Elba, 



