197 



LEVITICUS. 



LIBEL. 



195 



being separately in equilibrium are so when existing in connection. 

 But the under and upper w balance each other ; remove them, and 

 there remain two unequal pressures, v and v', which acting in opposite 

 directions at the same pointK, balance each other : a manifest absur- 

 dity. Consequently, no other weight except v can balance w when 

 placed at K. 



The most simple way in which the preceding result can be stated 

 is aa follows : when v placed at K balances w placed at L, about the 



pivot A, the number of pounds in v multiplied by the number of feet 

 in K A gives the same product as the number of pounds in w multiplied 

 by the number of feet in A L ; (any other units of weight and length 

 will do equally well, if only the same be used in both). The product 

 of a pressure and the perpendicular let fall upon its direction from a 

 fixed pivot or fulcrum is sometimes called the moment, sometimes the 

 leverage, of the weight. 



As the pressure on the pivot A is the sum of the weights v and w, 

 if the lever were suspended at A, by a string passing over a pulley, a 

 counterpoise might be applied in the shape of a weight equal to the 

 sum of the weights v and w. But when a system is at rest, the equili- 

 brium is not disturbed by making any point an immoveable pivot, and 

 taking away any weight which may be there, leaving its place to be 

 supplied by the re-action of the pivot. If then we were to make K a 

 pivot, weights equal to w and v + w, acting downwards and upwards 

 at L and A, would counterbalance one another, and since VXKA = WXLA, 

 add w x K A to both sides, and we have ( v + w) K A = w x KL. 



In English treatises on mechanics, it is customary to call one of the 

 pressures which balance on a lever, the power, and the other the 

 weight. Levers are thus distinguished as of the. first, second, or 

 third kind, according as the fulcrum, the weight, or the power, is in 

 the middle. 



LEVITICUS, is the third book of the Pentateuch, and is so called 

 from At UITIKOV, the title given to the book in the Septuagint translation. 



In Hebrew it is denominated t^p^l, va yel-ra, "and he !s called," 



its first word. Both titles indicate the contents, as the book treats 

 principally of the rites, ceremonies, sacrifices, and services, of the 

 Hebrew religion, of which the charge was committed specially to the 

 descendants of Aaron, who, as well as the other Levites, whose duties 

 are more particularly detailed in the book of Numbers, were of the 

 tribe of Levi. 



. That the book was written by Moses is proved, not only by the 

 Jewish traditions, but by the intrinsic evidence afforded by passages 

 in the book itself, and by others in the Old and New Testaments, 

 in which he is mentioned as the inspired author. In Matthew 

 viii. I. Jesus himself appeals to,,the law that " Moses commanded." 

 Some of the German Rationalistic writers have unsuccessfully attempted 

 to prove that the laws originated long after the time of Moses ; a con- 

 clusion manifestly incorrect, as they have a special relation to the 

 Exodic peiiixl, having constant reference to life in a camp, and that 

 camp under the command of Moses. 



Leviticus contains little historical information : the deaths of Xadab 

 and Abihu being the only event, besides the consecration of Aaron 

 and his sons to the offices of the priesthood ; and the time occupied is 

 by some confined to the eight days employed in this ceremony, while 

 others extend it to a month, and fix the month as the first of the 

 second year after the departure from Egypt. As there are no chrono- 

 logical data given in the book the fact cannot be certainly fixed. The 

 book is closely connected with that of Exodus, which concludes with a 

 description of the sanctuary and the external holiness, while this 

 commences by describing the worship itself. It further developes 

 the legislation as propounded from Sinai, the beginnings of which are 

 given in Exodus ; exhibits the historical progress of that legislation ; 

 and contains the chief laws relating to the offerings, the feasts, the 

 priests, and the definition of clean and unclean articles of food, not 

 exactly in a systematic form, but in a certain order arising from the 

 nature of the subject, of which the plan may be easily seen. 



T!:>! book has doubtless also a prophetical character. The sacrifices 

 and oblations which were to procure forgiveness of sins, have reference 

 to the atonement to be made by Christ ; as is shown by the whole 

 Kpintle to the Hebrews. "The whole service" [of the priests], says 

 Bishop Marsh, " like the veil of Moses, concealed a spiritual radiance 

 uiid'r an outward civ. ring; and the internal import bearing a precise 

 and indispgtablr ri-tVivm <: to future circumstances and events, is 

 Btarn[MMl with the indelible proof of Divine contrivance." 



Leviticus is almost uniformly treated of by writers and com- 

 mentators in connection with the other books of the Pentateuch ; but 

 Jahn , Hengstenberg's Authentic del Pcntateuclie* ; Haver- 



nick's J/attfi f "'f> <l<r Hittoriick'Krititcken Einltitttny in das Alten 

 Tettamfnt, 1839; Knobel's IJandbuch. :um Alten Testament, vol. xii., 

 die livelier Kxudat und Lri'iticut, 1858 ; Glaire's Introduction In. 

 et critique uux Livra de I'Ancien et da Nuuveav, Testament, 1839, and 

 I[<,rn>-'-< Introduction, may be usefully consulted. 



LEX. [LAW] 



< MKRCATORIA, or LAW-MERCHANT, in a general sense, 



denotes that body of the usages and customs of merchants which has 

 been adopted into the laws of most countries, and particularly of mari- 

 time states, for the protection and encouragement of trade. In this 

 view it has been often termed a branch of the Law of Nations. In 

 this general sense the law-merchant is at the present day extremely 

 uncertain and indefinite, as different countries have adopted different 

 portions of it, and the mercantile usages and customs common to all 

 are few in number. Some centuries ago, however, when the trans- 

 actions of commerce were less complicated, and the rules by which 

 they were governed were consequently simple, the provisions of the 

 Lex Mercatoria appear to have been better understood and ascertained. 

 Thus we find the law-merchant frequently referred to in general terms 

 by our earlier English statutes and charters as a well-known system, 

 and distinguished from the ordinary law ; as, for instance, in the stat. 

 27 Edw. III., 1353, it is declared " that all merchants coming to the 

 Staple shall be ordered according to the law-merchant, and not accord- 

 ing to the common law of the land ; " and the Charta Mercatoria, 

 31 Edw. I., 1303, directs the king's bailiffs, ministers, &c., " to do 

 speedy justice to merchants tecundum legem Mercatoriam." 



Lord Coke mentions the law-merchant as one of the great divisions 

 of which the law of England is composed {' Co. Litt.' 11, b.), and the 

 custom of merchants is said to be part of the law of England of which 

 the courts are to take judicial notice. (Vanheath r. Turner, Winch's 

 ' Reports,' p. 24.) This, however, must be understood to apply only to 

 general customs, as the rule does not comprehend particular or local 

 usages which do not form part of any general system. The generality 

 of the expression has caused much misunderstanding, and merchants 

 in this country have been often led to conceive from it, that when 

 practices or rules of trade have become established amongst them so as 

 to amount to " customs " in the common meaning of the term, they 

 form part of the law of the land. This misconception has frequently 

 led to improper verdicts of juries in mercantile trials. It is quite clear, 

 however, that the Lex Mercatoria, when used with reference to English 

 law, like the Lex et Consuetudo Parliament!, merely describes a general 

 head or division of the system. What customs or rules are compre- 

 hended under that division must always be matter of law for the 

 consideration of the judges; and it is said by Chief Justice Hobart (in 

 Vanheath r. Turner), that if they doubt about it, they may " send for 

 the merchants to know their custom, as they may send for the civilians 

 to know their law." In modern times the courts would inform them- 

 selves by directing an issue ; and indeed it is chiefly in trying disputed 

 .questions before a jury that evidence of mercantile customs is given. 

 As to what is understood by the Taw-merchant in England, and whence 

 it is derived, see the Introduction to Smith's 'Mercantile Laws.' 



LEXICON. [DICTIONARY.] 



LEYDEN JAR. [ELECTRICITY, COMMON.] 



LIBATION, an essential part of sacrifice among the Greeks and 

 Romans. It consisted in the offering up of any liquid to the gods, 

 usually of wine, water, or milk. Libations were also made at funerals, 

 and on various occasions of public and private life when an appeal was 

 made to the gods as at solemn prayers, before drinking at meals or 

 festivals, &c. (Pitisci ' Lexicon Antiq. Roman.,' torn, ii., pp. 74, 75 ; 

 Gyrald., ' Svntag. Deorum,' 1. xvii.) 



LIBAVIUS FUMING LIQUORS. [Tin, Bichloride of.] 



LIBEL is a malicious defamation, expressed either in writing, or by 

 signs, pictures, &c., tending either to blacken the memory of one who 

 is dead, or the reputation of one who is alive, and thereby exposing 

 him to public hatred, contempt, or ridicule. (Hawk. ' P. C.') 



This species of defamation is termed written scandal, and from the 

 considerations that the offence is committed upon greater deliberation 

 than the mere utterance of words, which are frequently employed 

 hastily and without thought, and that the effect of a writing continues 

 longer and is propagated farther and wider than verbal defamation, it 

 is generally treated as a more serious mode of defamation than slander. 

 [DEFAMATION ; SLANDER.] 



Whatever written words tend to render a man ridiculous or to lower 

 him in the estimation of the world, amount to a libel; although the 

 very same expressions, if spoken, would not have been slander or 

 defamation in the legal sense of those words. [SLANDER.] To com- 

 plete the offence, publication is necessary, that is, the communication 

 of the libel to some person. The mere writing of defamatory matter 

 without publication is not an offence punishable by law ; but if a libel 

 in a man's handwriting is found, the proof is thrown upon him to show 

 that he did not also publish it. 



There are two modes in which libellers may be punished, by indict- 

 ment and by action. 



The former mode is for the public offence, for every libel has a 

 tendency to a breach of the peace by provoking the person libelled ; 

 the latter, by civil action on the case, to recover damages by the party 

 for the injury caused to him by the libel. 



On the criminal prosecution it is, at common law, wholly immaterial 

 whether the libel be true or false,' inasmuch as it equally tends to a 

 breach of the peace, and the provocation, not the falsehood, is the 

 thing to be punished ; and therefore the defendant (in an indictment 

 for publishing a libel was not allowed to allege the truth of it by way 

 of justification. But in a civil action the libel must appear to be false 

 as well as scandalous, for the defendant may justify the truth of the 

 facts, and show that the plaintiff has received no injury at all. 



