MONOCHORD. 



MONOPOLY. 



T40 



In. Cani* Major, Orion, and Cub Minor. It doM not contain 

 UY Ur of on*picuoui brigfatne**. 

 MONOCHORD (iU*n, <mt. and xwH, *irt, an Instrument of 



one rtring. used for th purpoae of ascertaining and demonstrating the 

 nlaiir proportion* of musical sounds. It i* composed of a board, or 

 nil.-. divided nd subdivided into various part*, and of a rtriiu- d:- 

 tiadtd between two bridge*, tme of wbich U placed at each i. ' of tin- 

 rule. There should also be a moveable bridge applicable to the gradu- 

 ated line, in order to stop the utring at the distances required, leaving 

 U.Ui handa of the operator at liberty ; but this if not Indlfpensable. 

 The invention of the Monochord is attribuUd to Pythagoras. and 

 Ptolciny measured and proved all hi* intervals by it Guldo also, in 

 hi* ' Micrologu*,' strongly raoommands the vue of thu instrument, and 

 five* ample direction* fur its division, according to his system, for a 

 translation of which we refer the reader to Hawkins's ' History,' i. 449. 

 In Dr. Crotch'n Elements of Musical Composition,' will bo found a 

 simple and cheap method of constructing a Mouyehord, with plain rules 



idim; it for common practical purposes. 



MONOGRAM, a cipher or character funned by an interlacing of 

 letter*, intended as an abbreviation of a name. Monograms ore of very 

 ancient date. They are not uncommon upon Greek coins, especially 

 those of Macedonia and Sicily. They likewise occur upon the coins of 

 the SeleucidsB, and are found upon many of the family coins of Home, 

 though not upon those of the Roman emperors till a late period. 



The monogram of Jesus Christ n }' upon the coins of Constantino 



the Great, is well known. It was continued frequently by his suc- 

 cessors, even as low down as Alexander Comuenus and Theodoras 

 Laacari*. and was also placed at one period upon the Roman labarum. 



Montfauoon, in his ' Paheographia Gncca, p. 144, has given a small 

 plate of monograms used on coins, and, in ancient manuscripts, to re- 

 present the names of Greek cities. Such will also be found in Kchliiger, 



Comment, de Nurao Alex. M ,' tab. 3; au<l in Hriilich. Annul. U< _-. 

 Syr./ tab. 20. Dr. Charles Combe, in the 'Museum Huntvriaiium,' 

 4to, bond.. 17S2, plates 63 and 64, has given no less than four hundred 

 and twenty monograms which occur upon the coins of Greek states and 

 cities : others will be found in tabb. xiv., xv. of the ' Veterum Popu- 

 lorutn et Regum Xumi qni in Museo Britannico asservantur,' 4to., 

 London, 1814 : and see the works on numismatics generally. 



The conjunction of two, three, or four letters together is not 

 uncommon in Creek and Roman inscriptions. Many of those of the 

 Roman time will be found in Grrard's ' Sigillarinm Homanum,' 4to., 

 Lend., 1792. Pere Menestrier has preserved those of many of the pope*. 

 Ducange, in his ' Glossary,' has given tables of those of the popes, em- 

 perors, and the kings of France. Monograms appear upon almost all the 

 coins of the kings of France of the second race, that is, from A.D. 751 

 to 987. (Le Blanc, ' Traite" Historique des Monnoyes de France,' pp. 

 87-144.) Eginhard gives as a reason for Charlemagne's using a mono- 

 gram upon his coins, that he could not write ; and Le Blanc a<!.l - il,.-.t 

 a great many bishops did the same for the same reason, hich i - 

 a* at that period it was the fashion of Kurope generally. They aj.p, u- 

 upon our own Saxon coins, and esjiccially upon th"-e ".f Alfred. 



Monograms were almost universally used by th- 

 Bartach, in his ' Peintre Graveur,' has given tables of tin 

 used by those of Germany and Italy. Th.- l-'r.-n. -h .,it -i- u.,.. 

 died monograms. Panuvant, in his ' Peinture Graveur,' gives the mon 

 gram* omitted by Bartach. Bryant, in his ' Dictionary of Taint, r 

 and Engravers,' has several plates of monograms ; and 

 recent writers on engraving have supplii-d their readers with th> 

 grams of the engravers whose works they notice. The n 

 information however on this class of inunograms will lie found in the 

 best edition of Brulliot's ' Dlctionnaire des Monogrammes, Mai.|ii.- 

 figure*-, Lettres initial, Norn* abreges, Ac. avec lesqOel- 

 Dendnateurs, Graveurs, et Sculpteurs ont dcsigniS leurs Noms.' -J ton,. 

 4to., Munich, lMf M Alphonse Wyatt has in a series of paper- (with 

 fac timiles) In vol*. i. and ii. of the ' Gazette des IJeaux-Arts' (Par., 1859), 

 opened up a previously untouched branch of the subject the monograms 

 affixed by celebrated amateurs to drawings and engravings which have 

 formed part of their collections, and in the course of his investigations 

 he ha* collected a great deal of curious information. 



MONOMANIA. [ISBASITT.J 



MOXOPOLV, from the Greek monojMta (janm,*!*), which occurs 

 in Aristotle's ' Politick ' (i. 11), where it U used simply in the sens* of 

 a man buying up the whole of a commodity so as to lie the -} holder 

 of it. aad to have the power of selling it at his own price. Wh. n the 

 word momopulium was used by Tiberius in addressing the Roman senate 

 (8ut , Tib ,' c. 71), he thought an apology neoemary for intrhicing 



new word. The word however soon came into common use. The 

 term monopoly, v, ]y signifies ntiyle or tote teHimj. is used in 



U 



in wl, 

 > Ari*totle, and in the sense of what our law und. t.-t.,ud< '. 



(Toadng, regrating. t.. uln. h we m.,y add combining to keep 



Z*oo declare* that no |>non shall exercise .-, 

 _, Bib, or any other thing adapted for f.nxl or u 

 no definition of monopoly. The twin. must be CM 



from U. context, from which it appear* to signify any means b, 

 perm get* or altnpt to get the whole of any commodity into his 



poasenion for the purpose of enhancing the price. In the same conxti- 

 tution he forbid* nil (unbinition among dealers to raise the prices ol 



/..no's punishment for iniumpuly was oonfiscat 

 the goods of the offender and perpetual exile. 



A mono|K>ly, according to the Knglish law, is defined by Coke 

 (if In t..' JM,c. 85, "against monopolists," Ac.) to be "an 

 or allowance by the king, by his grant, commission, or otherwise, to 

 any person or i peraoM l bodies politic or cor|>orate, of or for the sole 

 buying, selling', making, working, or using of any thing, whereby any 

 person or persons, bodies politic or corporate, are sought to be 

 restrained of any freedom or liberty that they had before, or hi' 

 in their lawful trade." In ' Le Case de Monopolies' (11 Co., 8>, ' it 

 Is said that every monopoly has three inseparable incidents the 

 raising of the pnco, the deterioration of the commodity, and the 

 : Ubment of artificers and others. It appears that these insepa- 

 rable incident* were considered aa tests by which a grant savouring of 

 monopoly might be tried. 



Every royal grant or letters patent tending to a monopoly, as thus 

 defined and explained, was void. The crown, however, could I. y 

 patent grant and create exclusive privileges of buying ami .-. Iling u hi M 

 such grant was of general use, or when the grant was to an individual 

 who had introduced into the country soji, mil useful. This 



prerogative of the crown was often ore than by 



Klizaliuth, who granted many patents of r. in- the purpose of 



raising money. As an instance of this, Kli/abeth I to a 



certain person the sole making, importing, and selliiu 

 cards, which grant was declared void by the judges. (' Le Case de 

 Monopolies.') 



It seems, then, that the word monopoly was never used in Knglish 

 law, except when there wasa royal grant authorising some one m 

 - only to deal in or sell a certain < 



I'.y the Act of '1\ .lac. I., c. 3, all iuonpolieg and all commissions, 

 grants, licences, charters, and letters patent : 

 politic or corporate, of or for the sole buying, selling, nuking, working, 



| of any thing, or of any other IIMI, 

 contrary to the laws of the realm and utterly void and of none effect. 



By the M xth section of the same statute, the . < lo not 



extend to letters patent and grants of privilege ' 1 1 be granted 



for fourteen years or under, of the sole workin ,\- new 



manufacture to the true and first inventoi it the 



time of making such let) e, so as also 



such letters patent be not cuntran, ;-ithe 



state, or generally inconvenient. '1 i i* the foundation of the 



present law as to patents for inventions. [I'ATl:NTs.J 



Copyright and patents are MOW generally placed among mom 



: 'ut not correctly. The original legal scn-e of the 

 term monopoly has been already explained ; and the power of the 

 crown to grant patents is now limited and defined, as well iw the 

 formalities to be observed in obtaining them. Any patent not obtained 

 in duo form is void ; and the term monopoly, as above explained, has 

 legally ceased to exist. 



There is still a vulgar and common use of the term iiioiiop.lv. which 

 U incorrect, inasmuch as it has not the sense which monopoly i 



If a number of individuals wire to unite for the purpose of'proo 

 any particular article of commodity, and if liny should 

 Helling such article very extensively, and almost , indi- 



viduals in popular language would be said to have a mon : 

 as these individuals have no advantages given them by the I. 

 other persons, it is clear they .odity 



than by producing the common 



Such so-called monopoly, then, is neither the old legal in 

 does it rest on any legal privilege. There wouM be no 



objection to calling it a monopoly in 1 1 > tin i.nt sense of that term, if 

 the word were not now used in a bad or unfavourable sense, 

 probably dates from thu time when real monopoliM Wore grtotd bj 

 the crown, and wen- very injurious to the nation. I'.etwi en a m< 

 as it once existed, and a monopoly as it is now vnl.Mrly nml. 

 there is this ilie I'mnier a< only 



ivn, and was often injurious to all person- e\<.pt the pat 

 that which is now vulgarly called a monopoly is nothing more than the 

 P..WCI which an individual or a set of iml by means of 



capital and skill, of offering something to everybody cheaper and better 

 than they had it before, and it is therefore an advantage both to the 

 so-called monopolist* and to everybody else. 



The case of a number of persons combining ' 

 to buy and sell, a thing, ha* 1 



most striking and oppre- , kind of m h. vulgar .-. 



that term. An individual, 1 

 monopolist: a* if a man should buy rp all tl. 

 so moke candles as dear as he pleased ; or (to take a case v. 

 \ still greater act 

 i -h'.i:ld buy ali 'V, and so - 



es ami disadvantages : : ly, it 



i enough to put it u|in those who '. 



, to say h iv. 

 use his c.ipital and 

 on those who would deprive a man of such libcity to , iy exactly how 



