PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. 



PHILOSOPHY, POSITIVE. 



463 



for grace and tenderness where gentler expression is to be conveyed 

 (figs. 3 and 5), for playful flow of lines (as in groups in Jigs. 3 and 4), 

 or for the just balancing of parts as the means of producing a harmo- 

 nious whole. Throughout there is the stamp of careful thought, and 

 evidence of an intimate knowledge of art, combined with a free and 

 bold style. Among the excellencies of treatment, as it is technically 

 called, the value and quality of flesh and drapery in contrast, are 

 finely exhibited in parts of Jigs. 3 and 4. The few specimens here 

 chosen for illustration are sufficient to show the claim these marbles 

 have to our admiration as compositions. The difference alluded to in 

 the merit of the execution may probably be owing to the working out 

 of the general design having been entrusted either to pupils or to 

 various and inferior artiste, the idea and the compositions alone being 

 furnished by the master-mind. 



These interesting specimens of Greek sculpture were discovered in 

 the year 1812. They were purchased for the British Museum in 1814, 

 and arrived in England in the following year. The slabs were found, 

 with two or three exceptions, lying on the floor or pavement of the 

 temple, under the identical places they had originally occupied. They 

 were much mutilated, both from the injury they had sustained from 

 their own weight in falling, and from the heavy masses of the building 

 which had fallen on them. They have been put together with great 

 care, the pieces being secured by copper bolts ; but in no instance has 

 their integrity been impaired by restorations. For detailed descriptions 

 of these marbles, the reader is referred to the elaborate work of Baron 

 von Stackelberg, ' Der Apollotempel zu Bassos in Arcadien,' &c., Rome, 

 1826 ; also to Part IV. of ' Description of the Ancient Marbles in the 

 British Museum ; ' and to the ' Elgin Marbles,' in the ' Library of 

 Entertaining Knowledge.' 



PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, is one of the epistles written 

 by St. Paul daring his first imprisonment at Rome. [PAUL, ST., in 

 Bioo. Drv.J Like the other early churches pknted out of Palestine, 

 the church at Philippi in Macedonia consisted of Jews and Gentiles, the 

 latter forming the largw portion. These Philippians must, however, 

 have had cultivated minds, and have been acquainted with the manners, 

 customs, and philosophy of the Greeks, nince the epistle contains 

 allusions the force of whioh no other persons could fully understand. 

 They were first converted by the preaching of St. Paul about twelve 

 years before the date of this epistle, which was written apparently 

 (ii. 24) but a short time before his release from his imprisonment at 

 Rome, A.D. 63. 



The occasion of its composition seems to have been the following : 

 the Philippians, having heard that St. Paul was a prisoner at Rome, 

 sent contributions for his relief by the hand of Epaphroditus, whom 

 Theodoret and others represent as their bishop. St. Paul, being much 

 rejoiced by this proof of their affection towards him, and by learning 

 how great was their proficiency in all Christian excellences, sends back 

 Epaphroditus with this epistle. 



In this epistle, of which the canonical authority is incontestable, 

 St. Paul discovers much of his own character, the traita of which 

 cannot fail to create in the mind of an attentive reader an idea of true 

 dignity. He delicately proposes his own conduct for the imitation of 

 the Philippians ; and, with no mixture of affected humility, he dis- 

 claims all personal merit for whatever wisdom or goodness they had 

 seen in him or heard of him. His language is for the most part con- 

 structed with great skilfulness ; his thoughts are arranged in an order 

 exactly suited to his design; and his manner is at once affectionate and 

 authoritative. 



PHILIPPICS. [DEMOSTHENES, in Bioo. Drv.] 



PHILLIRIN (C S4 H 3 .O M + 3 Aq.) A white crystalline substance of a 

 silvery lustre found in the bark of the PhMyrea latifMa. It is 

 inodorous, bitter, slightly soluble in cold water, moderately so in 

 boiling water or alcohol, and nearly insoluble in ether. Boiled with 

 dilute hydrochloric acid it is transformed into phillygenin (a resinous 

 substance of the formula C^H^O,,) and grape sugar. 

 2BO = 



ThUivrin. 



Grape tugar. 



PHILO'LOGY (<f>i\o\oyia). It is difficult to attach a precise meaning 

 to this word, as it is used in different significations by different writers. 

 An 03g the Greeks and Romans, the term philology was originally used 

 to signify a love for the investigation of all subjects connected with 

 literature (Plat., ' Theaet.,' c. x. p. 146 ; c. xlvii. p. 161 ; Cic. ' ad Div.' 

 xvi. 21 ; Ernesti, ' Clavis Ciceron.,' under <t>i\o\oyarfpa.) The Alex- 

 andrine critics applied the term philologus to a person who was well 

 acquainted with the ancient Greek writers, and with the subjects 

 treated of in their works ; and we learn from Suetonius (' De Illustr. 

 Grammat,' c. 10), that Eratosthenes, who lived in the 2nd century 

 before the Christian era, was the first who obtained this name, in con- 

 sequence of his extensive and varied learning. In later times, a 

 philulogua was merely a person skilled in language, and the word 

 became almost synonymous with graiamaticus. 



Some modern writers have included under the term philology the 

 study of Greek and Roman antiquities, but the majority of writers 

 appear to regard the study of the theory of language and of languages 

 in general as the only subjects strictly belonging to philology. 



The reader who wishes further information respecting the different 



meanings attached to the word philology, may consult Ast's ' Grundriss 

 "der Philologie,' Landshut, 1808 ; and the first essay in Wolf and 

 Buttmanu's 'Museum der Alterthums-Wissenschaft,' Berlin, 1807. 



PHILOSOPHY, from the Greek philosophic!. (<j><\oaa<j>ia). literally 

 signifies " love of wisdom or knowledge," and a philosopher (<pi\6<ro<t>os), 

 is a " lover of wisdom." Pythagoras (Diog. Laert., Procem.) is said to 

 have first used the term philosophy, and to have called himoelf a 

 philosopher, instead of a sophus (aA<pos), or " wise man," for, he added, 

 1 no one is wise but God. Among the Greeks, philosophy was some- 

 times viewed as comprising or consisting of three parts, physic (tyvauciv), 

 ethic (fflutiv), and dialectic (SioAtirriKiJi/). Physic treated of the 

 universe and that which it contained ; ethic treated of things that 

 concerned human life and man. The term dialectic is explained in the 

 article OBGANON. 



The terms philosophy, philosophical, philosopher, are often used in 

 our own language apparently with no great precision, though it is not 

 difficult to deduce from the use of these terms the general meaning or 

 notion which is attached to them. We speak of the philosophy of the 

 human mind as being of all philosophies that to which the name 

 philosophy is particularly appropriated ; and when the term philosophy 

 is used absolutely, this seems to be the philosophy that is spoken of. 

 j Other philosophies are referred to their several objects by qualifying 

 terms ; thus we speak of natural philosophy, meaning thereby the 

 philosophy (whatever that word may mean) of nature, that is, as the 

 term nature ia generally understood, of material objects. We also 

 speak of the philosophy of positive law, understanding thereby the 

 philosophy of those binding rules, properly called laws. The terms 

 philosophy of history, philosophy of manufactures, and other such 

 terms, are also used. All objects then which can occupy the mind 

 may have something in common, called their philosophy; which 

 philosophy is nothing else than the general expression for that effort of 

 the mind whereby it strives, pursuant to its laws, to reduce its 

 knowledge to the form of ultimate truths or principles, and to 

 determine the immutable relations which exist between things as it 

 conceives them. The philosophy which comprises within itself all 

 philosophies is that which labours to determine the laws or ultimata 

 principles in obedience to which the luiud itself operates ; and both 

 those laws or ultimate truths, which must be considered as constituting 

 the mind what it is, and which are therefore independent of all external 

 impressions, and those laws by which the mind operates upon the 

 sensuous impressions produced by objects which it conceives and can 

 only conceive as being external to itself. 



Thus every kind of knowledge, the objects of which are things 

 external, has iU philosophy or principles, which, when discovered and 

 systematised, form the science of the things to which they severally 

 belong. But inasmuch as the mind, in striving after this science, 

 must act by its own laws and powers, and as these must in their form, 

 viewed independently of their special objects, always be the same 

 laws and powers (for we cannot conceive the mental powers to vary or 

 differ in their essential qualities merely because they are applied to 

 things that are conceived as different), we therefore assume that the 

 mind has its laws and powers, which may be discovered by observa- 

 tion, as we discover by observation the laws or principles which govern 

 the relations of things external to the mind, or conceived as extnrnal. 

 Thus the human mind, by the necessity imprinted upon it, seeks to 

 discover the ultimate foundation of all that it knows or conceives ; to 

 discover what itself is, and what is its relation to all things. Accor- 

 dingly it strives to form a system out of all such ultimate laws or 

 principles. Such a system may be called a philosophy, in the proper 

 and absolute sense of the term, and the attempt to form such a system 

 is to philosophise. Systems of philosophy have existed in all nations ; 

 even in the most uncivilised, in some form, and particularly in the 

 form of a religion ; for the highest aim of philosophy is to ascertain 

 the relation of man to the infinite Being whom he conceives as the end 

 and limit of all his inquiries. In nations which have made further 

 progress in mental culture, the systems of philosophy are not limited 

 to the dogmas of a religion, but those who have leisure, and whose 

 minds have been disciplined, have in all ages ventured to transcend the 

 limits of the religious system of their society or age, and to form what 

 are called philosophical systems. The history of such systems is the 

 history of philosophy, which thus viewed is a history of the progress of 

 the human mind towards the knowledge of itself, a knowledge which, 

 imperfect as it is, is the accumulation of many centuries, and the work 

 of many contributors. 



PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN MIND. [METAPHYSICS.] 



PHILOSOPHY, POSITIVE. The distinction of philosophy aa 

 positive and negative, was adopted by the German school. Thus 

 Kant's ' Kritik der Reinen Vernunft,' his ' Prolegomena zu einer jeden 

 Kunftigen Metaphysik,' and his ' Kritik der Urtheilskraft,'are regarded 

 as forming a sort of Prima Philosophia. preparatory to a positive or 

 formal and detailed system of metaphysics. For though the philo- 

 sophies which have successively arisen in Germany since Kant's day, 

 such as the Scientific-doctrine of Fichte, the Transcendental Idealism 

 of Schelling, the Phenomenology and Logic of Hegel, or the jMeta- 

 physic of Herbart, are all genealogically descended from Kant's Critic J 

 review (the review which reason was made by him to engage in, of the 

 faculties of the soul), yet Kant himself, in his Kritik, did not profess 

 to do more then pave the way for a system or dogmatik of speculative 



