



KItIT LAN. AGE AND LITKKATl'Ki:. 



SANTONIN. 



' IUmiy.uia.' M wall M ..( tliu 'SakuuULi.' and other dramas. 



.. : va.a grammarian of this school, in a kiiuilar manner invented 



a new grammatical system, a.--- -dun; to which he altered the ti -lmir.il 



llimainiM at Piuini, w illi.mt in other respect* varying in the smallest 

 degree (rout this method. (' Mugdhabodbs,' Calcutta, 1826, St. 

 Petersburg, 1M7 i 



AHmumy. The oldeat Indian astronomical document* are the 

 calendars which are annexed to the Vedas, and which, according to 

 Colebrooke, belong to the 13th century ii.r.. Imt a CM. at least in their 

 present form, of much more recent date. They inchulu a solar year 

 of 345 day*, andare o composed a* to determine it correctly. Here 

 also we are unable to point out how the unit lifiu.itical and astronomical 

 cienoe* were gradually developed fi-.m Midi simple element.-. 

 poHMl them only in their perfected form. Assisted by the i-ystcm of 

 notation which "they discovered, the unlives of India have been 

 partioularly happy in their methods of treating arithmetic ami 

 algebra, which have had such influence >n their mathematicAl studies 

 that theyj>refer solving geometrical questions analytically, junt as the 

 Greek*, nn the contrary, solved arithmetical questions by geometry. 

 < LtUratl.' by BhAakara, Calcutta, 1823 ; Colebrooke, ' Algebra of the 

 Hindo.*/ Calcutta, 1817. f 



In the earliest works on Indian astronomy now extant, several 

 different systems are apparent, and these systems have been treated of 

 in five works, entitled ' Siddhatit-is,' which ttp|iai-eut]y contain the 

 same theories which were afterwards successively extended and 

 improved. Varahamihira, at the beginning of the i:ih century A.I ., 

 oompared them with each other, and other astronomers worked then 

 up again under different titles, each with the view of introducing into 

 them his own theory. The most important of all astronomers that 

 preceded Varahaniihira is Aryabhatta, who wan the first to free him-. It' 

 completely from all mythological notion.-* : he wag acquainted with the 

 motion of the earth about its axis, and estimated more accurately than 

 Ptolemy the precession of the equinoxes. HU work, ' Ary&shtaaata,' 

 an exhibition of his system in 800 strophes, has not yet been recovered, 

 but his abridgment of it, ' Dasagitaka,' and another work, ' Aryab 

 hatttya,' which in 4 chapters and 123 strophes contains his system of 

 mathematics, are still extant. According to Colebrooke's reckoning, 

 the latest period at which he can be fixed is 478 A.D., and he may have 

 lived two or three centuries earlier ; ;iii-l Whi.su (' Trans. Asiat. Soc.', iii. 

 2. 509). fixes the year of his birth about 502 A.J>. By the researches 



if Wfber (' lud. 'stud.', ii. 230 111; ' Ind. Lit.' p. 2 '21 If.) and Lassen 

 ( Ind. Alt.', ii. 1114-46) the question whether the Indian astronomy 

 was entirely native, or whether it was constructed with the aid of that 

 of the Greeks, has been finally settled in favour of Greek in0uence. 

 Aryabhatta, who most probably flourished as early as the beginning of 

 the 4th century A.D., availed himself largely of the progress which the 

 Greeks (especially Hippanhas) had mode in astronomy ; ami he not 

 only improved ii|)on their new theories and inventions, but added also 

 the results of his own independent investigations. In algebra he made 

 -ven greater process than the Greeks. Astronomy has in . 

 improved in India since his time : on the contrary, those who have 

 come after him have not relinquished the false views consecrated by 

 religion, but hav. ml them against him. This 

 was chiefly done by Brahmagupta, the author of the' BrahmoBiddhanta,' 

 in the 6th century A.D.. who is the classical astronomer of the 

 modems, and whose track was followed by BhAskara in the 12th 

 entury, in his work ' Siddhantasiromani.' Since one of the other 

 fliddhintai, the Suryasiddhfuifci, has lately been edited in Calcutta 

 (1SS9), and an excellent translation of the same has appeared in the 

 sixth volume of ' The Journal of the American Oriental Society 



p. 141-498, we bave the means to make ourselves acquainted with all 

 the peculiar features of Hindu astronomy. (See several discussions 

 iLir Colebrooke in the second volume of his ' Essays,' and an article by 

 f. K. Hall, on the Arya-SiddhAnta ' in the ' Joiirn. Am. Or. Soc.', 1. 1. 



.61. 



Mrdifii't. There are many Indian works on medicine., and the 

 jstems are various. Many parts of the medical science of India arc 

 valuable even to us, as for instance the Mater ia Medica, in which they 

 wen much favoured by nature. The Indian physicians were highly 

 esteemed by the Greeks. In surgery especially they have made con- 

 siderable progress, and have even discovered and performed dillictilt 

 operations, as for instance the restoring of noses. Tie- m 

 brated medical work, ' Susruta,' has been print. ; . 1885, 



2 vnl. 8vo); and Ainsley (' Materia Indiea,' London. I- ;.; ,,,,1 1831), 

 and more recently Uoyle, (' On the Antiquity of Hindu Medicine,' 



London. 1. >::;>. and Wise ('Commentary on the Hindu Syste f 



Medicine.' t' ilc. 1845), have done much to make known the Indian 

 system* of medicine. 



. The observation of external nature still remains 

 in a very low state among the natives of India, and they seem n. . . r 

 to have mode any progress even towards the commencement of a 

 scientific system of natural history ; at leant no works of this kind are 

 known. 



/ nf Saiul-rit. The Sanskrit language was for many years con 

 fidered unattainable, but towards the close of the last century this 

 study received a powerful impulse, partly from the necewitii- 



h government in India, and partly from a desire of knowledge 

 among the learned of Europe. The study of the language having been 



once commenced. iU progress was extremely rapid, the a. 



it bring much faeilit.itrd by the previous labours of natm- ;/iam- 

 marians; and by the printing of a great number of theii 

 important works, n large part of the literature became generally 

 accessible, an advantage which most of the other oriental languages 

 have not enjoyed. In India this progress has been connected with the 

 names of Wilkins. Jones, Colebrook*, Wilson, Mill, Prinsep, Hoer, 

 Hall, U. Mittrn, liudh'ikout Deb. But Europe has n. 

 behind: and the rich collections of manuscripts in the possession of 

 the East India Company in London, of the Bodleian at Oxford, of the 

 Koyal Library at Berlin, and of the Imperial Library of Paris, have 

 been abundant BOUI. . . and perhaps more than suiiicient to compcn 

 Kite for the peculiar advantages enjoyed by India. In England, the 

 study of Sanskrit was in the first place most indebted to Han 

 and UOHCU |KiiM-.x,in Biou. Div.]; it now counts among its Sanskrit 

 scholars Mich men as M. Muller, Goldstiicker, Bollantyue, II. Williams. 

 and Aufrecht. In Kiance.it was chiefly introduced through Hamilton 

 in 1804, and cultivated by Chdzy and Burnouf. In Uermany Ii. 

 Sanskrit has experienced the most cordial reception, though at first, 

 owing to the wont of manuscripts, the study of it was prosecuted under 

 the greatest disadvantages. In that country, the knowledge of Sanskrit 

 was chiefly diffused by A. W. von Schlegel and Bopp, both of whom 

 learnt it about the same time in Paris. At present there is hardly a 

 university or college that has not its chair for Sanskrit ; and < 



with which it has been studied, the works of Lasaen, Roth, 

 Weber, Stelizler, Brockhaus, I'.cnfey, Kuhn, and Spiegel, give abundant 

 proof. Also in other continental countries Sanskrit scholars of 

 eminence, such as Westergaard in Denmark, Boehtlin;;k and Sehiefner 

 in Russia, Hegnier in France, N.\, in Uelgium, and (ionesioin Italy, 

 have done much to promote and popularise the study of ancient 

 Indian literature. 



For the prnctical study of Sanskrit we would recommend the 

 following books : 



0), /livliunana: Wilson's, 'Jud ed., Calc. 18-2; 3rd ed. by Uold- 

 stiicker (in the course of publication)); 'Sanskrit- \V6rterbiieh.' by 

 0. Boehtlingk and K. K.ith, St. Petersburg, 1855 ff. (in the course of 

 publication) ; ' Engl. and Sanscr. Diet.', by M. Williams, Loud. 1851. 



6, tiramiiMi:* : Wilson, 2nd ed., London, 1847 ; William 

 ed., London, 1857; Bopp, 'Orammatica eritica lingua) Sanscritso,' 

 BerUn, 1829-32, and his ' Kritisehe Ctrammatik der Sanskriti-Sprache," 

 rferlin, 1845; Boiler, ' Ausfiihrliche Sanskrit -(Jrammatik.' Wien.lM7 ; 

 Benfey, ' Vollstiindige Gramm. der Sanskrit-sprache,' Leipzig, IS." 

 his ' Kur/.e Sanskrit-Grammatik,' Leipzig, 1855; Desgranges, 'Cr.nn 

 maire Sanscrite-Francaise,' 2 vols., Paris, 1845; Oppert, 'Gramm. 

 Sanscrite,' Paris, 1859 ; Rodet, ' Gramm. abrege'e de la langue Sanscrit*,' 

 Paris, 1860 ; Fleehia, ' Graninmtica Sanscrita,' Torino, 1856. 



: . I olinson, ' Selections from the Mah.ibh.irata.' London, 



1843; ' Sanskrit-Chrestomathie,' by 0. Bohtlingk, St. Petersburg, 

 Anthnlogia Sanscrita,' ed. Lassen, Bonn, 1838; 'fir 

 aus Sanskritwerkeu,' by Th. Benfey, Leipzig, 1853. 



(/. ll'mvhr Oi ,'/c: Bopp, ' Venjleicheude i 



matik des Sanskrit, ete.', 2nd edit., Berlin, 1856-61, 'A vols. ; ti-.n 

 into English, London. 1854, ff., 3 vols. ; Bopp, ' Glossarium Sanscr.,' 

 Berlin, 1847; Kuhn. ' /eituchri ft fttr vergleiohende Bpraohforaohung,' 

 Berlin, 1852 H'., 10 vols. ; Kuhn and Schlcicher, ' Beitriige zur vergl. 

 Sprachforschung,' Berlin, 1858-C1, 3 vols.; many articles in the 

 ' Transactions of the Philological Society." 



SANTALIC ACID. [SANTA 



SANTALIN (C W H U O 1(1 ?). ,s.<, ( //iV ,iri,l. Tin- colouring matter of 

 the Pterocari' .na, or red sandal-wood. It was e 



Pelletier in 1814, and is readily obtained by digesting the IMS!>, -d W.MH! 

 in alcohol, and then diluting the clear solution with water, by which 

 the solution is precipitated of a beautiful red colour ; it is ta 

 insoluble ill water, but readily dissolved by alcohol. 

 alkaline solutions, and slightly by the oils of lavender and > 



The alcoholic solution of santalin gives dilt'erent coloured p. 

 tates with metallic solutions : thus witli tin it gives a beautiful purple, 

 with lead a violet, iron a deep brown, silver a reddish-brown. 



Santalin reddens litmus-paper, and forms ill-defined salts with some 



Santalin, or rather the red sauders which contains it, is little i 

 this country as a dye stuff, but in India it i employed both in < 

 silk and cotton. It is used in pharmacy to give a colour to ceil un 

 tinctures, but the colour is not generally regarded as a pcnn.meiit 

 one. 



SANTONX; Adi) \i- ,ll ,,<;>?) Santonin. A vegetable prmci,.! 

 sessing acid properties obtained from the seeds of tbeArtemini'i /i/.. /'.-(, 

 or southernwood. Its properties are, that it is colourless, cryM 

 in six-sided prisms and some other forms, is destitute of -null, and 

 when long chewed is slightly bitter. It is soluble in I 



its weight of cold water, and 'J.'id times when boiling. It is 

 soluble ill alcohol, and ill the fixed and volatile oils. When strongly 

 heated, it is decomposed. The alcoholic solution n .i.Li. 

 and with some bases it forms neutral and crystallisable salts ; this is 

 the cose with santonate of soda and mntonatc of lime ; some of the 

 metallic santonates are soluble and others insoluble in water. None 

 of them is applied to any use. 



SANTONIN. [8 ACID.] 



