J09 



SCAGLIOLA. 



SCALE. 



31-) 



tion of scaffolding. It isVustomary to strengthen some portions of the 

 scaffolds thus formed, in order to provide for the reception of the 

 hoisting machinery when stonework is used in conjunction with 

 bricks ; but of late years the scaffoldings of buildings in which stone 

 is largely employed have been executed with framed baulk timber and 

 constitute structures of great solidity. Detailed accounts of scaffolds 

 of this description are to be found in the ' Transactions of the Institu- 

 tion of Civil Engineers/ in the ' Builder/ in the ' Nouvelles Annales 

 de Construction/ in the ' Annales des Fonts et Chausse'es,' &e., in 

 Rondelet's ' Art de Batir/ Kraft's ' 1'Art de la Charpeute/ Perronnet's 

 ' Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique/ Fontana's ' Templum Vatica- 

 niim,' &c. Descriptions of scaffoldings which have been made to serve at 

 the same time as centres, or supports for parts of the work of the 

 permanent structure, are to be found in those works. In Foster's 

 ' Bauzeitung ' for 1854 there La a very good account of the suspended 

 scaffolding used in the reconstruction of the Pont Neuf, to which it is 

 desirable to call attention. See also Emy's ' Traitc de la Charpenterie.' 



The scaffoldings which are erected independently of the buildings, 

 throughout, are in point of fact timber structures of a very elaborate 

 description, and they have to resist not only the various actions pro- 

 duced by the movements of the materials and of the workmen, but 

 also those produced by the wind, acting as the latter frequently does 

 with a great leverage. It becomes essential, under these circum- 

 stances, to frame and brace the whole system with extreme care ; and, 

 should the scaffolding have to remain a long time in place, precautions 

 must be taken to guard against any decay of the wood. This, of 

 course, would be the most likely to commence in the portions of the 

 scaffolding built into the ground, or in those directly exposed to the 

 action of the rain ; the scarf or tenon joints also are very likely in 

 these structures, which always have a degree of flexibility, to give 

 access to the atmospheric moisture, and thus to rot. It is only in 

 buildings of the greatest importance, or of a very peculiar nature, 

 that scaffoldings entirely independent of the walls are used ; for their 

 construction really requires the erection of a timber frame on each 

 side of the wall, and is consequently a very costly operation. The 

 scaffolds used for raising the obelisks of Luxor, and in the Piazza in 

 front of St. Peter's at Home, are amongst the most remarkable works 

 of this kind yet executed. See Fontana and Emy. 



SCAGLIOLA (from the Italian arm/Ha, a scale or shell) is an in- 

 cnatatvm of artificial composition which is applied to columns, and 

 produces the most perfect imitation of marble, from which it can 

 hardly be distinguished either by the eye or the touch, as it takes an 

 equally high polish and feels equally hard and cold. Scagliola has long 

 been in use in Italy, where, according to Lanzi, it was invented by 

 Quido Faasi of Carpi (1584-1649), and where it was afterwards much 

 used for Florentine or inlay-work of the kind called a commean. It 

 was not introduced into this country before the latter half of the last 

 century, and the earliest application of it was in the columns of the 

 Pantheon in Oxford-street, London, built by James Wyatt. Since 

 that time, it has been brought into more general use, the manufacture of 

 it has been considerably improved, and it can be executed at a com- 

 paratively moderate cost. In fact, it has to a great extent superseded 

 the use of coloured marbles for columns and other interior decorations. 

 Jt is far lew costly than any kind of variegated marble, though too 

 expensive to be brought into ordinary use on every occasion, and it 

 answers the purpose of the real material not only as regards appearance 

 and effect, but durability also, since it will last quite as long as any 

 other part of the interior of a building. There is besides the advan- 

 tage attending it,'.that columns incrusted with scagliola may be made of 

 wood and hoUow, or else filled with a plaster core, and consequently do 

 not require that support in the -floor beneath them, which would be 

 necessary if solid marble shafts were employed; or if required to 

 support a bearing above them, the columns may be of brick or ordinary 

 stone, and afterwards coated with scagliola. Nor is the use of this 

 composition confined to columns and pilasters only, for it may be and 

 indeed is applied to other ornamental purposes, for table-slabs, pedestal- 

 stands, dados of rooms, borders of floors, Ac. 



The composition or cement itself is prepared from the purest 

 gypsum, which is first broken into small pieces, and after being 

 calcined is reduced to powder. It is then passed through a fine sieve, 

 and mixed with Flanders glue, isinglass, Ac. In this state it is mixed 

 up with colouring matter of the hue required ; and as it is generally em- 

 ployed for the imitation of variegated or veined marbles (all coloured 

 ones being more or less so), as many different colours and shades of 

 the same colour must be mixed up separately as there are in the kind 

 of marble to be imitated. Thus prepared, the composition is applied 

 to columns or other surface intended to receive it, and which has a 

 rough coating of lime and hair. The different colours are laid on and 

 mixed by the workman, and consequently much depends upon his skill 

 and taste in regard to the exactness of the imitation or the beauty of 

 the veining and streaking, which is done in the floating, as it is termed, 

 or laying on the cement. The next operation is to prepare the surface 

 for polishing, by rubbing it with pumice-stone and cleansing it with a 

 wet sponge. The imlish is then given by rubbing it again, first with 

 tripoli and charcoal on a piece of fine linen, secondly with felt dipped 

 in tripoli and oil, and lastly with oil alone. By this means a durable lustre 

 is obtained equal to that of the finest and most highly polished marble. 

 By means of scagliola, not only may the costliest and rarest stones, 



porphyry, verde antico, giallo antico, &c. be successfully imitated but 

 any combination of colours may be produced; for instance, purple, or 

 emerald green, streaked with gold, Siena veined with purple, or any 

 other splendid caprice that fancy may dictate. 



SCALD. [BURNS AND SCALDS.] 



SCALD, properly SKA'LLD, is an ancient Scandinavian word which 

 signifies poet, as skalldmar or skdlldkona signifies a poetess. The name 

 is, therefore, sometimes applied to the Scandinavian poets in general ; 

 but it belonged more especially to that class of poets who celebrated in 

 their songs the exploits of heroes. The Scalds were thus not merely 

 poets, but also the historians of their nation. When Snorri Sturluson, 

 the last and most celebrated of the Scalds (1178 1241), states that 

 the Scalds indeed always praised their contemporary heroes most, but 

 never attributed to them any fictitious deed, we must infer that the 

 creative powers of these poets had no scope, at least as far as contem- 

 poraneous history was concerned. The form and mode of diction 

 were thus the only parts in which they displayed their poetic powers ; 

 and how they availed themselves of this right is clear from the nume- 

 rous specimens of Sealdic poetry still extant : they are full of the 

 boldest and most extraordinary imagery, whence they are frequently 

 very obscure and almost unintelligible. 



Sealdic poetry is almost the only source from which we derive our 

 knowledge of the ancient history of the north of Europe. A consider- 

 able portion of it goes back to the remotest antiquity, and contains 

 only mythological legends ; while another portion, in the form of 

 poetry, contains historical accounts of contemporary events. Such 

 poetical histories, very different from the rhymed chronicles of other 

 nations, continued to be written down to the middle of the 13th 

 century. The Scalds were generally in the service of a chief or king, 

 whom they accompanied on his expeditions in the capacity of historio- 

 graphers ; and it was the pride of the chieftains to obtain such Scalds 

 as possessed most ability and learning. Their services were richly 

 rewarded by the heroes whose praise they sang. 



We still possess a very long list of Scalds, among whom are persons 

 of the highest rank, and even kings. The most distinguished, how- 

 ever, were those of Iceland, and it is to these that we are indebted for 

 the collection of ancient poetical traditions known under the name of 

 the Eddas. Those which are more historical are known as Sagas, 

 though in many cases these are mythical or legendary, as in the saga 

 of Ragnar Lodbrok, and the ' Heldensage von Volund' (our Wayland 

 Smith). Between the time when the death-song of Ragnar Lodbrok 

 was composed (about the end of the 8th century) and that of SNORRI 

 STURLUSON [Bioo. Drv., where, by mistake, it is printed STURULSON], 

 we have the names of upwards of two hundred Scalds, of whom the 

 more eminent were, Egil Skallagrimson, who wrote in praise of Erik 

 Blodaxe, king of Norway ; Einar Skaloglam, on the deeds of Hakon 

 Jarl ; Eynind Skaldaspillar, one of the best of the race, whose 

 ' Harkinamal ' is also an eulogism on Hakon ; Olaf Hvitaskald, said to 

 be the author of a part of the prone ' Edda;' and Sturla Thordarson, 

 the writer of the ' Rafnsmal ; ' but none of them possess the vigour 

 and freshness of the earlier productions, though sufficiently curious as 

 presenting pictures of the life and manners of the times. With the 

 introduction of Christianity the poetic power was devoted to the cele- 

 bration of saint* and miracles, and the zeal of the priests succeeded 

 not only in suppressing the inspiration of the poets, but in destroying 

 the existing specimens, so that only in Iceland, where the priesthood I 

 was selected from the natives, and no foreign influence interfered with 

 the old national literature, have any relics been preserved. Compare 

 * Fundgruben des Nordens/ by Legis; John Olafsen, 'Om Nordens 

 gamle Digtekonst, Grundregler, Versarter, Sprog og Fdredrags mode/ 

 Copenhagen, 1786; and the article SNORRI STURDLSON, in Bioo. 

 Drv. 



SCALE (Mathematics). A scale is any line drawn upon wood or 

 other solid substance, and divided into parts, equal or unequal, the 

 lengths of which may be taken off by the compasses, and transferred 

 to paper, in aid of any geometrical construction. The manner in which 

 the scale is divided depends of course upon the nature of the alge- 

 braical or trigonometrical expression the values of which are to be 

 represented. When the subdivisions of a scale are equal, any of the 

 methods noticed in GRADUATION may be employed to obtain them ; 

 but in other cases, and indeed in the preceding one, it is usual to form 

 scales by copying from an original which is carefully made in the first 

 instance. 



The most simple of all scales is that in which the subdivisions are 

 all equal, or, as it is called, a scale of equal parts. Such a scale is not 

 only the most easily constructed, but may be considered as containing 

 all other scales. For example, suppose it required to lay down very 

 accurately an angle of 25. It appears [CHORD] that if the radius 

 contain 500 equal parts, the chord of 25 contains 216 such parts and 

 ,ijtli8 of a part. With a good scale of equal parts, and 500 of them 

 taken as a radius, the angle may be laid down, if required, much more 

 correctly than by a common scale of chords. [PROTRACTOR.] The 

 largest table of chords which is laid down on common scales has a 

 radius of 3 inches, the 500th part of which, or about the 167th of an 

 inch, is a very small length ; and it is difficult to trust any scale so far 

 without verification, except the scale of equal parts. In the latter 

 species, one part may be tried against another, and any one may for 

 himself very soon ascertain whether there bo any perceptible error. 



