6*1 



SOCIETIES, ASSOCIATIONS. 



SODIUM. 



(Aristotle), we estimate the value of any particular government by its 

 fitness for this end, and the accidents of its form are subordinate to 

 that for which pursuant to its nature it exists. Its origin may in 

 many cases have been as obscure, and as little perceived, as the origin 

 of those customs which exist in such endless variety in the world. 

 Nobody supposes that customs originated in universal consent, or that 

 people who follow them, or at least the majority who follow them, 

 ever consider why they follow them. He who can trace the origin of 

 customs can trace the origin of government. 



The theory of men living in a state of nature and thence proceeding 

 to form political societies, has apparently derived some countenance 

 from the condition of many savages. There are perhaps people who 

 may be said to have no government, if it be true that among some 

 savages there is no bond of union except that of families. If this is 

 so, each family is ruled by its head, like the families of the Cyclops 

 (Aristotle, ' Politik.' i. 1), so long as the head can maintain his dominion. 

 This state, if it exists anywhere, is perhaps what some people call a 

 state of nature ; but it is in fact a very imperfect state of nature, for 

 the perfect state of nature is a political society, because it is that 

 state to which the nature of our constitution impels us as the best. 

 The savage in his lowest condition bears the same relation to the man 

 who is a member of a political body, that the man who has not his 

 senses bears to the man who has his full understanding. Both the 

 savage and the idiot are imperfect men : they are the deviations from 

 the course of nature. 



SOCIETIES, ASSOCIATIONS. The great increase of Societies or 

 Associations for all kinds of purposes is characteristic of the present 

 condition of Europeans in Europe and of Europeans who have settled 

 in other parts of the world. Association for particular objects is ana- 

 logous to the great associations of political societies, but with this 

 difference, that their object is something particular, and that they are 

 really established and exist by the consent of the individuals who 

 compose them. 



Societies have been formed and exist for nearly every variety of 

 object. There are societies for objects scientific and literary, some- 

 times called academies ; for objects religious and moral ; and for 

 objects which are directly material, but in their results are generally 

 beneficial to the whole of mankind. There are societies for objects 

 which the members consider useful, but which other people consider 

 to be mischievous.' Generally, in this country, it may be stated that 

 any number of individuals are permitted to contribute their money and 

 their personal exertions for any object which is not expressly forbidden 

 by some statute, or which would not be declared illegal by some court 

 of justice, if the legality of such association came in question before it. 

 The objects for which persons may and do associate are accordingly as 

 numerous as the objects which individuals may design to accomplish, 

 but cannot accomplish without uniting their efforts. 



In some cases the State has aided in the formation of such associa- 

 tions, and has given them greater security for carrying their purposes 

 into effect, as in the case of savings' banks and friendly societies. 

 Sometimes the State grants a charter of incorporation to associations, 

 which in many respects enables the body to transact its matters of 

 business more conveniently. Sometimes the State perceives that it 

 can extract some revenue from persons who associate for particular 

 purposes, as in the case of fire-insurance offices, for all persons who 

 insure their property in them (except fanning stock, &c.) must pay the 

 State 200 per cent, on the sum which they pay to secure their property 

 against the accidents of fire. [INSURANCE, Fnu:.] If a man should 

 think it prudent to invest a part of his annual savings in a life insur- 

 ance, the State makes him pay a tax on the policy. A great many 

 associations of individuals for benevolent, scientific, and such like pur- 

 poses are left to direct their associations according to the common 

 principles of law.^ 



If lists were made of all the associations in Great Britain and Ireland, 

 including those which are purely commercial, with an account of their 

 object*, income, and applications of income, we should have the evi- 

 dence of an amount of activity and combination that was never equalled 

 before. How far it might be prudent to give to all associations for 

 lawful purposes greater facilities for the management of their property 

 and the making of contracts, subject to certain regulations as to regis- 

 tration of their rules and approval of their objects, is a matter well 

 deserving of the attention of the legislature. 



SOCINIANS. [Socixcs, in Bioo. Div.l 



SODA. [SODIUM.] 



8ODA-ASH. [SODIUM.] 



SODA, MANUFACTURE OF. [SODIUM.] 



si >l lA-WATER. [ABRATED WATKIIS.] 



SODIUM. (Na, natrium,) The original name of natrium for this 

 metal is derived from that of natron, nitron, or trona, old names of 

 certain natural deposits of carbonate of soda which were long con- 

 founded with the true nitron or nitre (nitrate of potash). The term 

 sodium originates from soda or sod-ash, the latter probably having 

 allusion to the practice of burning the sods or turf of plants growing 

 near the oa in order to obtain their ash, which is a crude carbonate of 

 soda, known as barilla. 



Hodiurn, like POTASSIVM, was first isolated by Sir H. Davy. It may 

 be prepared in a manner similar to, but with far greater facility than, 

 the last-named element. Deville gives the following directions for 



AST* ASD SOL DIV. VOL. VII. 



obtaining it in large quantities. Intimately mix 717 parts of dried 

 carbonate of soda with 175 parts of powdered charcoal and 108 of 

 finely ground chalk ; knead into a stiff paste with oil : heat in a 

 covered iron pot till the oil is all decomposed ; finally, distil, with the 

 apparatus, arrangements, and precautions given under POTASSIUM. 



Sodium has the characteristic lustrous appearance of a metal, and is 

 of a beautiful light rose colour. It may be obtained in quadratic 

 outohedral crystals by the method described under POTASSIUM. Like 

 potassium, it speedily tarnishes by exposure to the air, owing to its 

 great affinity for oxygen, and this occurs more rapidly when the air is 

 moist ; it requires for preservation the same precautions as have been 

 mentioned with regard to potassium. It does not, like this metal, 

 inflame when thrown upon water, but decomposes the latter with a 

 hissing noise, the results being hydrogen and oxide of sodium, or soda, 

 which, remaining in solution, exhibits the well-known alkaline character 

 of that substance. When however it is placed on a moistened bad con- 

 ductor of heat, as charcoal, it decomposes water with vivid combustion. 

 Its specific gravity is 0.972. It is a good conductor of electricity and 

 heat ; but if too strongly heated in the air, it burns with a yellow 

 flame. 



The equivalent of sodium is 23. 



Sodium combines with all the elementary gaseous bodies, two of 

 which combinations, namely, those with oxygen and chlorine, are of 

 great importance and utility. 



Oxygen and sodium form two compounds, protoxide and peroxide of 

 sodium ; the former of these has been long known, and extensively 

 used in various arts and manufactures. It was formerly called the 

 fostil or mineral alkali, to distinguish it from potash, which, as being 

 procured by the incineration of wood, was called the vegetable alkali ; 

 the peroxide has been discovered only since the metal was known. 



Under the head of carbonate of soda we shall briefly mention the 

 processes by which soda is procured for manufacturing purposes, 

 stating merely at present that protoxide of sodium, or anhydrous toda 

 (N T aO) is prepared by heating the metal in dry oxygen gas. Thus 

 obtained, it is a gray solid, resembling potash in appearance, but it is 

 less fusible and volatile. It is extremely acrid to the taste, and is 

 very caustic. It has great affinity for water, dissolving readily in it, 

 and in large quantity, and the solution has strongly marked alkaline 

 properties. 



Sodium differs remarkably from potassium in some respects ; thus, 

 while both become first alkaline oxides, and afterwards carbonates, by 

 exposure to the air, the carbonate of soda remains dry, while that of 

 potash becomes fluid, owing to the absorption of water. 



Sodium, as has already been noticed, is oxidised by decomposing 

 water, and the solution of soda obtained, when evaporated to dryness, 

 leaves hydrate of soda (NaO, HO). This is a solid white substance, 

 greatly resembling soda in appearance and properties. It retains the 

 water with such great affinity that it cannot be expelled by heat. 



The hydrate is composed of one equivalent of soda and one equivalent 

 of water. 



Solution of hydrate of soda is largely used in the arts. It is made 

 by boiling a tolerably strong solution of soda-ash or carbonate of soda 

 with milk of lime until a portion of the filtrate ceases to effervesce on 

 the addition of an acid. The strength of the solution is indicated by 

 its specific gravity at 59" Fahr., as demonstrated in the following table 

 by Zimmerman : 



Sp. gr. 

 4285 

 4193 

 4101 

 4011 

 392:! 

 383C. 

 3751 

 3008 

 3586 

 3505 

 342C 

 3349 

 3273 

 3198 

 3143 

 3125 

 3053 

 2982 

 2912 

 2843 

 2775 

 3708 

 2642 

 2578 

 2515 

 2453 



Soda 

 per cent. 

 15-110 

 14-506 

 13-901 

 13-297 

 12 692 

 12-088 

 11-484 

 10-879 

 10-275 

 9-670 

 9-066 

 8-462 

 7-857 

 7-253 

 6-648 

 6-044 

 5-440 

 4-835 

 4-231 

 3-626 

 3-022 

 2-418 

 1-813 

 1-209 

 0-604 

 0-302 



Soda is met with in some mineral substances, but not so commonly 

 as potash. It is found however in albite, or cleavlandite, a con- 

 stituent of granite resembling felspar, except tbat it contains soda 

 nstead of potash. [SODIUM, in NAT. HIST. DIV.] 



Peroxide of Sodium (NaOa ?) This compound is formed on mode- 



