773 



STATES-GENERAL. 



STATISTICS. 



774 



Most of the cities of Ionia coined staters. Those of Chios, Teos, 

 Colophon, Smyrna, Ephesus, and other places, now exist. There were 

 also gold coins struck in Samos, Siphnus, Thasos, the Greek cities of 

 Sicily, and Cyrene, at an early period. After the Macedonian coinage 

 of staters, many Greek states coined them according to the same 

 standard ; we may mention Epims, Acarnania, .iBtolia, and Syracuse. 



The coins in the system of the stater were the single, double, and 

 half staters ; these were very common : there were also, less commonly, 

 quarters, thirds, sixths, and twelfths of staters. 



The Attic silver tetradrachm was called stater in later times, but it 

 is doubtful whether it was so called in the best ages of the republic. 



The term stater was also applied to weight, meaning apparently any 

 standard of weight. The Minn and Sicilian Litra were so called. 



(Hussey, Ancient Weight* and Money; Wurm, De Pond.,&c. ; Bockh, 

 Metroluifoche I'nterguchungen ; Humphrey, Coin Collector's Manual.) 



STATES-GENERAL. [NATIPXAL ASSEMBLY.] 



STATICS, a subdivision of mechanics, meaning the part of the 

 science in which equilibrating forc.es are considered, in opposition to 

 DYNAMICS, in which the effects of forces producing motion are 

 investigated : it is subdivided into the statics of rigid and of fluid 

 bodies, the latter being called HYDROSTATICS. The general con- 

 siderations in MECHANICS, FORCE, PRESSURE, POWER, WEIGHT, &o., 

 and such articles as LEVER, INCLINED PLANE, PULLEY, WHEEL AND 

 AXLE, WEDGE, SCREW, may be consulted ; and also the articles VIRTUAL 

 VELOCITIES, THEORY or COUPLES, &c. 



One foundation of statics was first given by Archimedes, and 

 another by Stevinus^as noticed in MECHANICS. The former is the 

 more rigorous, the latter being open to some objections of a serious 

 character. The discoveries of Galileo turned the attention of philoso- 

 phers upon dynamical problems, and the very easy connection which 

 exists between the statical and dynamical measure of forces caused the 

 theory of statics to be founded, almost up to the present day, upon 

 dynamical principles. The taste for the purer form of statics has 

 however revived, and we imagine that from henceforward it will be 

 customary to make thui science stand by itself. 



The two great propositions of statics are that of the LEVER, demon- 

 strated in the article on that word, and that of the COMPOSITION of 

 pressures, mentioned, but not demonstrated. Which of these shall be 

 chosen as the foundation of the science, and how the other shall be 

 deduced from it, are two points on which every writer on the subject 

 should think much, as the character of his work in the eyes of others 

 will, in a great measure, depend on his treatment of these parts of the 

 subject. The method of Archimedes is, in our opinion, the soundest 

 of all ; but we say it without denying the possibility of exhibiting a 

 direct statical proof of the composition of pressures which shall be 

 equally satisfactory. In those which have hitherto been given, there 

 ia a want of distinction between the mathematical and physical 

 assumptions : the student leaves off with no very clear perception how 

 far the proposition is one of mathematics, and how far one of physics. 

 There is a general dislike and distrust of these proofs, which is evidence 

 almost conclusive against them : any one who would improve them 

 should not leave off until he has not only made a better separation of 

 the physical axioms from the rest, but has put it in a form hi which 

 such separation is exceedingly obvious. Till this is done, the proofs 

 in question will only stifle opposition, while the proposition of 

 Archimedes forces conviction. If there be anything likely to be mis- 

 understood in the latter, it applies as much to the former in all the 

 cases which we have seen. [SUFFICIENT REASON.] 



Statics, like all other mechanical sciences, is usually placed among 

 mixed MATHEMATICS. But the line which separates it from the pure 

 sciences is almost imperceptible, and it would seem more reasonable 

 to invent a third and intermediate distinctive term, than to place 

 statics and electricity under the same name, to distinguish them from 

 geometry. It would be easy to show that all which is common to 

 geometry and statics, and not to electricity, is more extensive, more 

 striking, and more easily described, than the little which is common 

 to statics and electricity, and not to geometry. In fact, when we say 

 that both statics and electricity are concerned with properties of matter 

 as distinguished from space, we have stated the whole of the common 

 tie by which the two sciences are united : while geometry and statics 

 possess in common almost equal degrees of evidence in their axioms, 

 altogether the same rigour of deduction, and strong analogies in their 

 theorems. Mr. Wheu'ell has contended for the alteration of the loca- 

 tion (if statics : but he carries the idea farther than we can follow him, 

 for (' Mechanical Euclid,') he asserts that the axioms of statics are 

 " elf-evidently true," " not to be learnt from without, but from 

 within." We may also refer to the same writer's ' History of Scientific 

 Ideas,' vol. i., 1858. We shall enter further upon this point in the 

 article SUPKK.'IKNT UEASUN. 



STATIONARY (Astronomy). All the planets appear at the earth 

 to move alternately forwards and backwards in the heavens, the retro- 

 grade motion not continuing go long as the direct motion. For a little 

 time at the beginning and end of the retrogradation.the planet appears 

 in have no motion. This arises when the relative MOTION of the 

 planet is really towards the earth. The planet's velocity may always 

 be decomposed into two, one in the direction of the earth's motion, or 

 its opposite, the other towards or from the earth. When it happens 

 that the former motion is not only parallel to that of the earth, but 



equal to it, the planet cannot change its place in the heavens, but all 

 its apparent motion is the remaining motion, directly to or from the 

 earth. If the planet were so near that we could readily see alterations 

 of its distance, we should say it was directly approaching or receding : 

 but as we cannot see thia phenomenon, we pronounce it stationary, 

 and for some nights we lose the distinction between it and the fixed 

 stars. [TEOCHOIDAL CURVES.] 



STATIONARY. This term requires introduction into mechanics 

 in a manner corrective of the mistakes which have sometimes been 

 made. One of these is pointed out in STABLE AND UNSTABLE. 

 Instead of saying that a system acted on by its weight is in equilibrium 

 only when the centre of gravity is highest or lowest, it is there pointed 

 out that all that is necessary is that the motion which the centre tends 

 to take should be horizontal : or that the centre should be stationary 

 as to ascent or descent, for the moment. Again, there is what is 

 called the principle of hast action [VIRTUAL VELOCITIES], which the 

 mathematician will recognise in the theorem that the motion of a 

 system is always such that Smfvds is a minimum. Now all that is 

 proved is that in the motion of a system, in the language of the 

 calculus of VARIATIONS, 8 2 m / v d is = 0. Now all that this requires 

 is that S mfc ds should be stationary ; or that if a path infinitely near 

 the path of motion should be chosen, 2 m'f 11 ds, calculated for the 

 new path, should differ from the same calculated for the old path, by 

 a quantity of an order inferior to those on which the difference of the 

 paths depends. Sir W. Hamilton proposes to call this the principle of 

 stationary action, instead of that of least action ; the action of a 

 particle whose mass is m moving over an arc s being a name given to 

 m tfv ds, taken from one end of the arc to the other, where v 

 represents the velocity. 



STATISTICS is that department of political science which is con- 

 cerned hi collecting and arranging facts illustrative of the condition 

 and resources of a state. To reason upon such facts and to draw con- 

 clusions from them is not within the province of statistics ; but is the 

 business of the statesman and of the political economist. In order to 

 exemplify the precise character and limits of statistics, the Statistical 

 Society of London have aptly chosen for then- emblem a wheat-sheaf, 

 with the motto " aliis exterendum." 



That it is necessary for a government, in order to govern well, to 

 acquire information upon matters affecting the condition and interests 

 of the people, is obvious. Indeed the civilisation of a country may 

 almost be measured by the completeness of its statistics ; for where 

 valuable statistical records of ancient date are found concerning a 

 country not yet advanced in civilisation, which would appear to con- 

 tradict this position, we owe them to sovereigns or governments of 

 uncommon vigour and sagacity. However rude the government of a 

 country may be, it cannot attempt to make laws without having 

 acquired the means of forming a judgment, however imperfect, as to 

 the matters brought under its consideration. In this sense statistics 

 may be said to be coeval with legislation ; but as the latter has rarely 

 been conducted upon any fixed principles, or partaken of the character 

 of science, in the earlier ages of the world, we must attribute to 

 statistics, as a department of political science, a much later origin. It 

 is chiefly to the rise of political economy that we are indebted for the 

 cultivation of statistics. The principles of that science, which are 

 directly concerned about the prosperity and happiness of mankind, 

 were not reduced to any system until the middle of the last century ; 

 since that time, political economy has been cultivated as an inductive 

 science. The correctness of preconceived theories has been tested by 

 the observation and analysis of facts ; and new principles have been 

 discovered and established by the same means. A limited knowledge 

 of facts had previously been an obstacle to the progress of political 

 economy ; and on the other hand the neglect of that science caused 

 indifference to statistical inquiries. 



This connection between political theories and statistics, while it has 

 led to the collection of many data which would not otherwise have 

 been obtained, has too often introduced a partial and deceptive state- 

 ment of facts, in order to support preconceived opinions. This is 

 sometimes unjustly objected to statistics, as if it were a defect peculiar 

 to them. That facilities for deception are afforded by statistics cannot 

 be denied ; but fallacies of this kind, like all others, are open to 

 scrutiny and exposure. Reliance need not be placed upon statements 

 of facts nor on numbers, unless supported by evidence ; and inferences 

 from them should only be admitted according to the rules by which 

 all sound reasoning in governed. Fallacies are difficult to detect in 

 proportion to the ingenuity of the sophist and the ignorance or inex- 

 pertness of his opponents ; but in political matters, opposite theories 

 and opinions are maintained with equal ability, and facts and argu- 

 ments are investigated with so much jealousy, that, in the end, truth 

 can hardly fail to be established. Neither does any suspicion of par- 

 tiality attach to such facts as arc collected by a government without 

 reference to particular theories. Until some one has shown the value 

 of noting a certain class of facts with a view to his own inquiries, no 

 pains are taken to obtain information of that nature from the best 

 sources ; but as soon as the importance of seeking any data is acknow- 

 ledged, the collection of them becomes the business of impartial 

 persons. The statist must be acquainted with the purposes to which 

 the facts collected and arranged by him are likely to be applied, in 

 order that the proper distinctions and details may bo noted in such a 



