HI SUGAR iri.Tl'lU-: AND KAVUVACTUBBi 



The compound of sugar and baryta U similar. When uydr.it*->! oxide 

 of lead U digested in a solution of sugar, a yellow alkaline liquid i* 

 formed, wliicli yield* a tough deliquescent man by evaporation : Imt 

 xce of the oxide in boiled in a M>lution of sugar, and the 

 filtered hot, it deposit* eventually a tasteless insoluble com- 



SUGAK CUI.Tl UK AND MAXUFAlTUUE. 





pound, containing 2 PbO, C,,H ,(>,,, 



Sugar dissolves carbonate and diacetate of copper, forming green 

 solutions which are not decomposed by the alkalies, and this is also 

 the cue with the salts of iron. A crystalline compound of sugar and 

 common salt may be formed by the spontaneous evaporation of a solu- 

 tion f four parts of the former and one port of the latter. According 

 t.. r .tains NCe,HO,C 1 ,H f O, + C 1J H. 1 ) 11 . 



lied with eight times ita weight of quicklime, sugar furnishes 

 METACETONB. Chlorine transform* sugar into a brown substance 

 partially soluble in water. 



Kr the action of notations of sugar on a ray of polarised light, and 

 estimation of the strength of a solution of sugar, see SM-I HAKIMI i in. 



The uses of cane sugar are too well known to require much notice ; 



on account of its antiseptic power, it is employed to preserve various 



vegetable products : it is used as a sweetener of many kinds of food, 



in t IK-MI caws nutritious; but being destitute of nitrogen it is, 



ibaUnces similarly constituted, incapable of supporting life 



for any length of time. 



Miii'lt >'</,/!-, when refined, is equal in appearance and sweetening 

 power to refined cane-sugar ; and in composition they are similar. 



nxit Snyar is exactly similar to cane-sugar. 



Grapt-iuyar, or ytncoK (CuH.^O.j, 2Aq.), or tlarch-tugar. Besides 

 the sources previously mentioned, this variety of sugar lias been lately 

 shown to be a constituent of healthy urine. Under the name of 

 diabetic sugar it occurs in abnormal quantities in the urine of jiaticnts 

 afflicted with diabetes; under these circumstances it is readily detected 

 on adding to a small quantity of the urine contained in a test tube, 

 first, solution of potash or soda, next a few drops of solution of sulphate 

 of copper, am) then .gradually heating to the boiling point, when an 

 abundant deposit of red suboxide of copper will be formed if sugar be 

 present in abnormal quantity. The same test may, of course, be 

 applied to any other solution suspected to contain glucose. 



Grape-sugar is produced in quantity by allowing a cream of starch 

 and water to flow into water containing one per cent, of sulphuric. 

 acid, at a tem|ierature of 1 30 Fahr. The whole is ultimately boiled 

 for a short time, the sulphuric acid neutralised by chalk, and the solu- 

 tion evaporated down and set aside to crystallise. 



Glucose forms combinations with bases which are rapidly decom- 

 posed, yielding QLUCIO ACID. When heated, they yield uncrystallisable. 

 Mti.AS.sK ACID. Combinations of glucic acid with certain en 

 principles occur naturally ; several ore described under Uu cosim s. 



cd to about 140 Fahr., grape-sugar softens, and at -Jl'J I'ahr. 

 melts, and loses two equivalents of water. At a higher tempi 



i into caramel. Water dissolves less of grape than of cane- 

 sugar, the solution is less viscid, and it is not so sweet ; hot alcohol, 

 however, dissolves more of it, but it is deposited again < 

 crystalline grains. With sulphuric acid, instead of being cha 

 cane-sugar is, it forms a compound acid called ntli-lin.ii-r//<iric acid, 

 $nlphijglucic, mljiknliynie, rnjelii-mil/i/iiiric, or .i/y./mm"/'>ic acid, which 

 gives no precipitate with the salts of barium. 



Ilnneij contains both fructose, or uncrystallisable sugar, and glucose - 

 sugar. The two may be separated by strong alcohol, which dissolves 

 the fructose and leaves the grape-sugar behind. 



;i-tr. [MANMTI:.| 

 JBWirwin Sityar. [M.VNMTB.] 



. o called, is not, a true sugar. See Gi.ycYKIUIl/.lx. 

 Milt, Lactiue, or Laclv- ,), is obtained by 



the whey of milk to its crystallising point ; it forms colourless 

 four-sided prisms, which are soluble in about six parts of cold water 

 and two and a half parts of hot : the taste of this sugar is not very 

 sweet, it is unalterable in the air, and is insoluble in alcohol and ether. 

 Boiled with dilute acids, it is slowly converted into glucose. It forms 

 two insoluble compounds with oxide of lead; and reduces boiling solu- 

 tions of salts of copper, mercury, or silver. 



Mdilote, IrclialuK, and tiirlezitnir, are three varieties of sugar lately 

 discovered by M. Berthelot They are closely allied to cane-sugar. 

 Mi lit is contained in Australian manna, a product of the / 

 Ita; b\ f i mentation it yields a non-crystalline body, termed Ettcali/n 

 (C a H a O a , 2HOI. Trthalote, is contained in Turkish manna, a MI!. 

 stance formed by an insect (Larimus ni'lijicanx) at the expense of a 

 plant of the genus t'clnnnjn ; it seems to be identical with the mycone 

 of Mitschcrlich, a sweet principle contained in ergot of rye. M 

 occurs in Briancon manna, on exudation irom tin larch 



II,, O,,) is a sugar contained in the berries of the mountain 

 ash (Xurtiiu ancuparia). Heat transforms it into a deep red matter, 

 term 



si CAR cn.Tri:i: AND MANUFACTUUE. Sugar is a sweet 



cryntallihcd substance, most commonly prepared from the expressed 



great extent as an article of commerce ; and of these the sugar-cane is 

 by far the most extensively used. The sensation of sweetness is 

 indeed produced not only by many vegetable ami animal substances, 

 but also by some of purely chemical character. The muscular p. 

 all quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, if boiled or roasted soon after death, 

 have a decided though slight degree of sweetness ; which sweetness 

 disappears on the commencement of the spontaneous change which 

 ends in putrefactive decomposition. <<ly<criii is a sweet substance 

 obtainable from most of the fata or expressed oils, whether animal or 

 vegetable, by the process of snponificatiou. The sweet taste of new 

 milk is occasioned by a saccharine substance called sugar of milk. 

 Honey-dew, or aphis-sugar, and the honey of the bee, are intermediate 

 between animal and vegetable sugars; because, though derived from 

 vegetable juices, they are modiiicd by digestion in the stomachs of 

 insects. Among vegetables which contain sugar ready formed (though 

 not in a crystallised or separate state), there are several trees from the 

 sap of which it may be obtained in sufficient quantity for human use. 

 Two of these the sycamore and t! are natives of Ifritain ; 



but the sugar which they yield is not sufficient to repay the e.\ 

 of manufacture. The sugar-maple, which abounds in some parts of 

 North America, yields sugar in such abundance as to be of considerable 

 importance. Many trees of the palm family afford a sweet sap, which 

 may be boiled down to a tolerably solid viscid sugar. Saccharine 

 matter exists in many ripe fruits in great abundance, as is evident not 

 only from their sweet taste, but also from the circumstance that it 

 exudes from some, such as the tig and the grape, in the process of drying. 

 Several roots, particularly of the tuberous or fleshy kind, coi 

 sufficient saccharine matter to be commercially important, eith 

 separating it in a pure state, or in the form of an extract of all the 

 soluble ingredients of the root. Of the latter class liquorice is one 

 of the most important. For the former purpose, attempts have 

 made upon several fleshy roots employed as food. Marggraf (in 171/1 

 tried the skirret (a variety of parsnepi, the white beet, and the reii 

 His experiments were resumed some years afterwards by M. A chard, at 

 the desire of the Prussian government. Probably these and some other 

 early experiments led, in some degree, to the subsequent introduction 

 of the manufacture of beet-root sugar in France under II. (,'haptil. 



The above details show how many sources there are from which 

 sugar might be obtained. None of them, however, as far as experi- 

 ment has shown hitherto, will bear comparison with the sugar-cane in 

 point of cheapness; beet-root sugar indeed has entered into com- 

 petition with that from the cane, but only successfully when aided by 



regulations. . ' 



//..<y ;/' Cane Siujar. Unless we suppose the sacred \ 

 to have alluded to it, Herodotus is probably tin author 



who mentioned sugar. Theophrostus describes three kinds of 

 honey from flowers, from the air (apjiarcntly honey dew), and from 

 cams or reeds; and in another place he describes a reed or cam- that 

 grew in moist places in Egypt, which was sweet even to the roots. 

 From some passages in early writers it would seem that the j i 

 the cone was used as a drink. The term " honey of canes," which 

 appears to indicate a fluid or semi-fluid consistency, was ir 

 Aviecima, as late as the tenth century. Dioscorides, about the i 

 of the reign of Nero, is said to be the first writer who .-. 



raKxapof), or sugar; but though he gives an accurate 

 description of it, he was evidently unacquainted with the pri 

 which it was prepared. He says "it is in consistency like salt, and it 

 is brittle between the teeth like salt." Seneca speaks of sugar as honey 

 found on the leaves of canes, which is produced by the dew, or the 

 sweet juice of the cane itself, concreting ; thereby showing the like 

 ignorance of ita real character. I'liny speaks of sugar as brought from 

 Arabia, and better from India. "It is," he says, "honey coii 

 from canes, like a gum, white, and brittle between the teeth ; the 

 largest is of the size of a hazel-nut. It is used in medicine only." 

 tialcn, in the second century, gives a description of sugar almost 

 identical with that of Dioscorides, excepting that he says nothing of 

 its brittleness and resemblance to salt. These qualities are ho 

 again mentioned by 1'aulus yKgineta, in the 7th century, who. following 

 Archigenes, an earlier writer, describes sugar as " the Indian salt, in 

 colour and form like common salt, but in taste and sweetness like 

 honey." 



Such notices might be extended much further; but enough has 

 been stated to show that sugar was known, and was on article of 

 commerce, at least as early as the commencement of the Christian era ; 

 and also to prove that its origin was very imperfectly im 

 ancient Greek and Koman writers. Although more than one writer 

 speaks of sugar as coming from Arabia as well as India, it was probably 

 not made in the former country. Indeed the early Arabian writers 

 themselves speak of sugar as coming from India. It appears probable 

 that the white sugar-candy of China, which has been very long cele- 

 brated for ita excellence, was the Indian salt of the Roman authors. 

 The historians of the crftsades describe the sugar-cane as met w ith by 

 the Crusaders in Syria. One of these, Albertus Ag' t the 



f the sugar-cane, of which there are several species; but some- year 1 1 08, says that "sweet honied reeds." which irere called / 



not, from the sap of one or mm a maple, wvic found in creat quantity in the me- ' Tripoli. These 



and from oth-r vegetable productions. Saccharine matt, r ii imbed i ucked by the crusaders' army, who were much | 



able secretions, but it is only from with their sweet taste; and our author gives the oldest, description 



ned substances that sugar has been extracted to any extant of the process of extracting sugar from the cane. Another of 



