123 



TEMPERATURE. 



TEMPLARS. 



126 



polation may of course be employed, but if the skill of the computer 

 do not reach so far, he must be content with a less accurate result, 

 or must use the common table, in the manner just explained. For 

 instance, one note makes 4622 vibrations, while another makes 5033 ; 

 required the interval between them. Divide both by 30, which gives 

 154'1 and 167'8 ; if without interpolation, say 154 and 168. Opposite 

 to 168 is 8870, and opposite to 154 is 87'20, differing by 1'5, or a 

 mean semitone and a half. The interpolated logarithms are 88'68 and 

 87'21, differing by 1'47. The more accurate result of the former rule 

 is 1-4752. 



The tuning of a piano-forte is generally done by ear, but in that of 

 an organ recourse is had, though not very often, to the beats which 

 imperfect consonances always give. In the temperament of this last- 

 named king of instruments, less liberty is allowable than in that of the 

 stringed instruments ; for not only do the beats become unpleasantly 

 frequent when a consonance is too imperfect, but the imperfection of 

 the consonance itself is more perceptible when notes are held, as in the 

 organ, than when they die rapidly away, as in the piano-forte. These 

 beats are described in ACOUSTICS, and when the lower note is known, 

 and also its number of vibrations, the number of beats which are made 

 in a given time, as ten seconds, a minute, or any other which is con 

 venient, can be calculated from the known imperfection of the con- 

 sonance, and the number of vibrations of the lower note. Theoretically 

 speaking, it makes some little difference whether the consonance be 

 tempered sharp or flat, but not to an extent which it is worth while to 

 consider. The rule for determining the beats is as follows : let the 

 lower note of the (perfect) consonance make n vibrations, while the 

 upper note makes m, the fraction m -=- n being in its lowest terms, and 

 let x and K be the actual numbers of vibrations in the lower and higher 

 notes, per second: then HIN = M. Let / be the fraction of a mean 

 semitone by which the consonance is tempered ; then the number of 

 beats in a minute is found by taking the fraction jit of the production 

 my or nx, multiplying by 1109 and dividing by 320, or by 4, 8, and 

 10. The algebraical formula is 



1109 

 -320 



1109 

 -320 





For example, let the note c 1 make 512 vibrations ; it is required to 

 find the number of beats per minute in the consonance c'o 1 , when tern 

 pered as in the system of mean semitones. Here N = 512, m = 3, 

 MN = 1536. The perfect fifth is 7'01 955 mean semitones, whence the frac- 

 tion p is '01955, since the tempered fifth has seven semitones exactly. 

 .Multiply -01955 by 1536, which gives 30-0288 ; multiply by 1109 and 

 divide by 320, which gives 104*07 (say 104) beats in a minute. 



Tables for facilitating the calculations might easily be made, but it 

 is hardly worth while to insert them here. These beats are usually, 

 we believe, simply counted with a watch, but it would be both conve- 

 nient and exact to have some such machine as Dr. Smith recommended, 

 a pendulum which could be easily altered in vibration, and first ad- 

 justed to move exactly with the beats ; the pendulum might then be 

 subsequently compared with the watch. Without such a contrivance 

 it is very difficult to tune the piano-forte by beats, since they do not 

 last long enough in sufficient intensity ; with it the last-named instru- 

 ment might easily be tuned on any system of temperament ; and those 

 who practise the art would have the advantage of hearing different 

 systems, knowing at the same time what those systems are. At pre- 

 sent the few organ-builders who use beats are the only tuners who 

 make any approach to science : all the rest judge only by the ear, 

 which may vary from time to time, or even with the state of the body, 

 or the weather. We have many reasons for thinking that the ear 

 alone is a variable judge in so nice a matter as temperament. 



Persons desirous of information on this subject may consult Jousse 

 ' On Temperament,' London, 1832; Hamilton, ' Introduction to the 

 Art of Tuning' (no date); Stanhope, 'Principles of Tuning,' 1806 ; 

 Harsh, ' Theory of Harmonics,' 1809 ; Woolhouse, ' On Musical Inter- 

 vals,' 1835 ; Sir J. Herschel, ' On Sound ' (Encyclop. Metropol.") ; 

 Young's 'Lectures,' vol. i., cap. 83; Smith, 'On Harmonics,' first 

 edition, 1749 ; second edition, 1759. This work of Dr. Smith is most 

 difficult and confused, but is still the most extensive separate treatise 

 on the subject ; that of Mr. Woolhouse is sufficient, and much more 

 intelligible. On the subject of beats, and on several proposals as to 

 temperament, see a paper by Professor De Morgan, ' On the Beats of 

 Imperfect Consonances ' (Camb. Phil. Tram., vol. x., part i.). 



TEMPERATURE. [-ATMOSPHERE; CLIMATE; ISOTHERMAL LINES.] 



TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA. [SEA.] 



TEMPEHATfRE, TERRESTRIAL, DISTRIBUTION OF. [TER- 



RESTRfAI, ToiPERATUREj 



TEMPERING OF .STEEL. [STEEL MANUFACTURE; CUTLERY.] 

 TEMPLARS, KNIGHTS TEMPLARS, or KNIGHTS OF THE 

 TEMPLE, are the popular designations for the Brethren of the Temple 

 nl Solomon at Jerusalem, also called the Soldiery of the Temple 

 (Militia Templi) and the Soldiers of Christ. The three great religious 

 military Orders, the Knights of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem 

 (commonly called the Knights Hospitallers), the Templars, and the 

 Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem (or German Knights of the 

 Crow), all originated in the 12th century ; the two former towards its 

 commencement, during the first crusade, the last not till near its close. 



The founders of the Order of the Templars, which is held to date from 

 the year 1118 or 111 9, were nine knights, all French, of whom the two 

 chief were Hugues de Payens (or de Paganes) and Geoffroi de St. Omer 

 (or St. Ademar). One account makes all the nine to have been pre- 

 viously members of the Order of St. John ; but it is at least doubtful 

 if this were the case. At all events, the Hospitallers were not yet a 

 military order; their distinguishing profession was to entertain pil- 

 grims and to attend the sick and wounded : the idea of adding to the 

 three common vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, an engagement 

 to fight against the Infidels, appears to have been first put in practice 

 by De Payens and his brethren. Up to this time, when a knight 

 entered the society of the Hospitallers, he seems to have laid aside his 

 arms. Nor probably did the nine knights forming the new association 

 at first contemplate either the extensively military character which 

 their order eventually assumed, or even the establishment of an order 

 which should extend and perpetuate itself. Their original vow was 

 simply to maintain free passage for the pilgrims who should visit the 

 Holy Land ; and they did not proceed to add to their number till six 

 or seven years after their association. In another respect, also, their 

 early condition and pretensions were remarkably contrasted with their 

 subsequent state ; for at this time they made the greatest show of 

 poverty, even De Payens, who was styled Master, and his friend 

 De St. Omer, keeping only one horse between them, a circumstance 

 commemorated in the seal of the order, which represents two armed 

 knights mounted one behind the other on the same horse. Indeed, 

 the name which they took, and by which they were commonly known, 

 was the Pauper Soldiers (Paupei'es Commilitonez) of the Temple of 

 Solomon ; and they professed to have no source of subsistence but the 

 alms of the faithful. The king of Jerusalem, Baldwin II., gave them 

 their first place of residence a part of his palace ; to which the abbot 

 and canons of the church and convent of the Temple, which stood 

 adjoining, added another building for keeping their arms, whence they 

 acquired the name of Templars. 



The new principle of their association, however, immediately drew 

 general attention ; so much so, that in 1120 the Hospitallers got their 

 order remodelled by Pope Calixtus II. on the same principle. The 

 first regular embodying of the Templars was by Honorius II., who in 

 1128 confirmed a rule for them which had been drawn up and decreed 

 that same year by the Council of Troyes, on the requisition of Hugues 

 de Payens and several of his brethren. Honorius at the same time, to 

 distinguish them from the Hospitallers, who were arrayed in a black 

 mantle, assigned the brethren of the new order a white mantle for 

 their peculiar dress, which they wore plain till Eugenius III., in 114C, 

 appointed them to wear a red cross on the left breast, in imitation of 

 the white cross worn by the Hospitallers. This bloody cross was also 

 borne upon their banner, which was formed of cloth striped black and 

 white ; whence it was called Baiaeant, an old French term applied to 

 a horse marked with these colours. This word consequently became 

 the famous war-cry of the Temple chivalry. 



The new order speedily rose into consideration. Members of the 

 noblest families in every nation of Christendom eagerly sought to be 

 joined to it ; legacies and donations in lands and money were showered 

 upon it by persons of all ranks ; and in course of time it acquired ample 

 possessions in nearly every country of Europe. At the head of the 

 order was the Master, or Grand Master (Maijister, or Afar/nun ifayistcr), 

 who was, however, not only elected by the Chapter, or general body of 

 the Knights, but very much controlled by that body. The Grand 

 Master had immediately under him his Seneschal, or lieutenant, and 

 other high officers were the Marshal, the Treasurer, &c. The several 

 countries in Asia and Europe in which the order had possessions were 

 denominated Provinces ; and each of them was presided over by a 

 resident chief, called, indifferently, a Grand Prior, Grand Preceptor, or 

 Provincial Master. Under the provincial masters were the Priors, 

 otherwise called Bailiffs, or Masters, who had charge each of one of the 

 districts into which the province was divided ; and, finally, under the 

 priors were the Preceptors, each of whom presided over a single house 

 of the order (or sometimes over two or three adjoining houses which 

 were considered as one establishment), hence called a Preceptory. The 

 head province was that of Jerusalem ; the affairs of the order, in fact, 

 were for the most part directed by the chapter of this province, which 

 was invested by the constitution with all the powers of a general 

 chapter at all times when such a chapter was not assembled. The 

 Grand Prior of Jerusalem was ex-officio treasurer of the order ; and 

 in this province the Grand Master resided so long as the Christians 

 retained any footing in the country ; and on the fall of Acre, and the 

 final extinction of the Latin power in Palestine, in 1192, the Knights 

 took refuge in the town of Limisso (otherwise called Limasol) in 

 Cyprus. The other provinces in the East were Tripolis and Antioch ; 

 to which Cyprus, till then included in one of these, was added after 

 that island became the head-quarters of the order. The western pro- 

 vinces were Portugal, Castile and Leon, Aragon, France and Auvergne, 

 Normandy, Aquitaine or Poitou, Provence, England (in which Scotland 

 and Ireland were included), Germany, Upper and Central Italy, Apulia, 

 anil Sicily. 



For some time after its institution, the Order of the Templars con- 

 sisted exclusively of laymen; but in the year 1162, the famous bull 

 entitled ' Omne Datum Optimum,' issued by Pope Alexander III., 

 among other important privileges which it bestowed upon the order, 



