301 



TRADE AND SHIPPING. 



TRAGACANTH. 



302 



of which British North America contributed 4,309,2352. ; Sweden and 

 Norway, 2,169,5452. ; Prussia, 1,093,4122. ; Russia, 783,3882. ; and the 

 remainder by various countries. Wool, to the value of 10,704,9222., 

 of which 5,387,0782. was furnished by Australia; 1,187,748;., by 

 British possessions in South Africa; b'99,8612., by the British East 

 Indies ; and the rest from various places, chiefly through the Hanse 

 towns ; together with alpaca and llama wool to the value of 326,5571., 

 and woollen manufactures not made up, to that of 918,927'. For 

 agricultural purposes, we imported guano to the value of 1,563,1452. ; 

 oil-seed cakes to that of 910.8402., and flaxseed and linseed to the 

 amount of 3,391,93s/. ; but of this a large portion was for manufacture 

 into oil. The total imports amounted to 210,648,6432. The customs 

 duties for the year amounted to 23,032,3952., a decrease of 1,862,1842. 

 on those of the preceding year. 



The declared value of British and Irish produce and manufactures 

 exported during the same year (1860) was 135.842.817J. This does 

 not include the foreign and colonial articles re-exported, which 

 amounted in declared value to 5,136,6522. The chief articles were 

 apparel and slops, to South Africa, Australia, other British possessions, 

 and to foreign countries, 2,156,3481. Beer and ale, of which the East 

 Indies, Australia, and the United States were the chief consumers, 

 1,863,9982. Printed books, 494,9152. Butter, 633,2802. Cheese, 

 118,8592. Coals and culm, 3,321,5392., of which France took 586,1092. 

 Cotton (woven), 40,342,8192., of which the Hanse towns took 

 1,191,7032.; Turkey, 2,789,9542.; Egypt, 1,046,9882.; the United 

 States, 3,848,7502.; foreign West Indies, 1,062,9652.; Brazil, 

 2,300,1012.; China, 3,157,3592.; Java, 1,057,6172.; British North 

 America, the West Indies, and South Africa, 1,528,1062. ; the East 

 Indies, 10,518,0942., no other country reaching to a million; while 

 other cotton manufactures, such as lace, net, stockings, counteYpanes, 

 and small wares, and sewing thread, were exported to the value of 

 1 .7'.' 1,5932., and cotton yarn to the amount of 9,875,0732. Earthen- 

 ware and porcelain, 1,440,9982. Glass flint, window, bottles, and 

 plate, 653,2242. Haberdashery and millinery, 4,011,2772. Hardware 

 and cutlery, 3,772,0352. Leather, tanned and manufactured, 

 2,129,0942. Linens (woven), 4,432,8232., with thread lace, thread and 

 tape*, 369,3802, and linen yarn, 1,800,9272. Machinery, including 

 steam-engines, 3 825,3612. Metals : iron, including pig, bar, railway, 

 wire, cast, wrought of all kinds, and steel, 12,168,3562.; copper, of all 

 sort*, including brass, 3,001,9922. ; lead, of all sorts, 699,6482. ; tin and 

 tin plates, 1,862,1 602., of which the United States took 1 ,018,0562. Oils, 

 from seeds, 1,132,3242. Silk, manufactured, 1,577,0012.; with thrown 

 silk and silk twist and yarn, 822 29 12. Soap, 249,8762. Soda, 982,9062. 

 Spirits, British, 286,6512. Stationery, 720,7212. Sugar, refined, 

 239,7622. Telegraphic wire and apparatus, 250,6552. Wool, 868,7812. 

 Woollen cloths and other manufactures, 12,192,8612., for which the 

 United States were the largest customers, though the dispersion is 

 pretty general ; and woollen and worsted yarn, 3,843,3962. 



>'/<//,/.//</. This enormous trade requires a corresponding amount of 

 hipping. In 18toO, there were entered inwards with cargoes 20,104 

 British ships, of an aggregate burden of 6,762,464 tons, an average of 

 286 tons each j and 18,270 foreign vessels of 4,292,823 tons, an average 

 of 235 tons ; an increase of both British and foreign over the years 

 1858 and 1859 : and there were cleared outward with cargoes 23,713 

 British ships, of an aggregate burden of ,359,103 tons, an average of 

 260 tons each; and 20,777 foreign ships of 4,425,433 tons, an average of 

 only 205 tons. The greatest number of foreign ships was that of the 

 Danes, 2957 entered inward, and 3362 cleared outwards ; the Nor- 

 wegians sent 2862 vessels, and cleared out 1746 ; but the shallow 

 waters of the Baltic necessitate the use of small ships, BO that the 

 tonnage of the two inwards was only 929,483, outwards 677,605 tons, 

 an average of only 140 tons each. The largest amount of tonnage is 

 by the United States, who entered 1,361,021 tons in 1417 ships ; and 

 cleared out 1,867,988 tons, in 1456 ships, an average of 945 tons each. 

 Inwards Russia sent 435 ships of 125,612 tons ; Sweden, 1119 ships of 

 181,755 tons; Prussia, 1795 ships of 425,436 tons; Mecklenburg and 

 Oldenburg, 722 ships of 144,088 tons; Hanover, 970 ships of 81,196 

 tons, an average of only 84 tons ; the Hanse Towns, 580 ships of 212,006 

 tons; Holland, 1501 ships of 186,098 tons; Belgium, 257 ships of 

 64,li.6 tons ; France, 2187 ships of 180,824 tons; Spain, 244 ships of 

 67,048 tons; Portugal, 147 ships of 38,638 tons; Sardinia and Sicily, 

 493 ships of 118,914 tons; Austria, 467 ships of 152,058 tons; Greece, 

 69 ships of 16,125 tons ; other European countries, 38 ships of 12,280 

 tons ; and other countries in America, Asia, and Africa, 20 ships of 

 6365 tons. Outwards there were cleared, in addition to those men- 

 tioned above, from Russia, 396 ships of 116,991 tons; Sweden, 1163 

 ships of 185,192 tons; Prussia, 1595 ships of 350,088 tons; Meckleu- 

 burg and Oldenburg, 905 ships of 100,222 tons; Hanover, 1666 ship 

 of 134,919 tons; Hanse Town*, 867 ships of 290,788 tons; Holland, 

 1756 ships of 260,050 tons ; Belgium, 262 ships of 59,102 tons ; France, 

 4068 ships of 430,440 tons, a remarkable difference from those entered 

 jiiwurds; Spain, 221 ships of 61,383 tons; Portugal, 143 ships of 

 Jl,".'l tons; Sardinia and Sicily, 553 ships of 139,301 tons; Austria, 

 501 sLips of 163,091 tons; Greece, 44 ships of 16,684 tons; other 

 European countries, 44 ships of 15,684 ton*; and other countries in 

 America, Asia, and Africa, 19 ships of 6081 tons. 



The coasting-trade, including that between Great Britain and Ire- 

 land, i even larger in amount of tonnage ; but a the return gives the 



repeated voyages when entered or cleared with cargoes, the number of 

 ships employed is not shown, bvit only the number of voyages made. 

 These, in 1830, were, inwards, 153,782, and the aggregate burden 

 was 17,003,411 tons, of which only 102,223 tons came in 666 foreign 

 bottoms. Outwards there were cleared 157,419 ships of 17,014,399 

 tons, of which 644 foreign vessels carried 100,056 tons. 



The total number of registered ships in 1860, not including river 

 steamers, was 20,019, of an aggregate burden of 4,251,739 tons; of 

 these 929 were steamers of 399,494 tons burden. The number o 

 men employed in these vessels was 171,592, exclusive of masters. Tha 

 total number of vessels built and registered in the year was 1016 of 

 211.9B8 tons burden, of which 198 were steamers of 53,796 tons 

 burden. 



TRADE WINDS. [WixDS.] 



TRADER. [BANKRUPT.] 



TRADITION (from the Latin tradert) comprises, in the widest 

 sense of the word, all that has been handed down (qupe tradita sunt) 

 to us concerning the event* of the past, and in this sense all history is 

 tradition. lu the early ages of mankind and of every nation, when 

 the art of writing was unknown or little used, all history was handed 

 down by oral communication from generation to generation without 

 written records. Afterwards, when the accounts thus propagated were 

 written down and assumed a definite shape, or many shapes, according 

 to the information, the opinions, or the judgment possessed by the 

 person or persons who wrote them down, such accounta were found to 

 differ materially from accounts written by eye-witnesses at or soon 

 after the times when events happened. Historical criticism distin- 

 guishes the two kinds of history by calling the former tradition, in a 

 narrower sense of the word, and the latter history. Those who know 

 how, even in our days, reports are changed and embellished, how some 

 features are omitted and others added during the process of passing 

 from mouth to mouth, and how in the end they frequently assume a 

 totally different aspect from what they originally had, will readily 

 admit that such traditions cannot be received with the same faith as 

 contemporary history. We may add that the more important the 

 occurrence handed down by tradition is, and the more it affects the 

 feelings and passions of men, the greater will be the changes and cor- 

 ruptions which it experiences in ita progress. The desire, moreover, 

 of seeing things clear and complete is inherent in the human mind ; 

 and hence we find that in innumerable instances where a tradition or a 

 series of traditions was deficient, unclear, or incomplete, man's imagi- 

 nation and ingenuity have been at work, to make up an apparently 

 complete account, either by filling up the gaps in the original account 

 with pure fictions, or by transferring and combining events which 

 belong to different times and countries. Such accounts require to be 

 examined with more caution on the part of the historian the more 

 skilfully they are made up, and the more their apparent consistency 

 resembles real history. It is the business of the historian who feels 

 the want of a positive conviction, and is not satisfied with discovering 

 that a tradition is obscure, inconsistent, or incredible, to find out its 

 historical groundwork, by comparing the traditions about one and the 

 same subject, by analogies, and by separating such additions and 

 embellishments which have been made with a view to satisfy man's 

 curiosity, or his feelings, either religious or political. The historian 

 who undertakes this task has to guard against two dangerous rocks : 

 the one is the desire to construct out of a tradition a history according 

 to a preconceived notion or theory, the very thing which in many cases 

 was the cause of the adulterated tradition itself ; and the other is the 

 so-called rationalistic mode of dealing with tradition, which consists in 

 stripping it of everything poetical or marvellous, and leaving nothing 

 bnt a skeleton, which is considered as history merely because it pre- 

 sents nothing that might not happen every day and within our own 

 experience. 



In the history of Christianity the term tradition has been applied to 

 the so-called unwritten word of God ; that is, to the doctrines said to 

 have been communicated by Christ to his apostles, which were not 

 written down by them, but were handed down by their oral instruction 

 to their successors. This tradition is preserved in the writings of the 

 ecclesiastical fathers ; and the Church of Rome regards them, next to 

 the Bible, as a source of knowledge which ought to regulate the life and 

 religious observances of Christians. She claims for tradition the same 

 unconditional faith hi regard to its divine authority as for t he doctrines 

 of the New Testament. The substance of the tradition thus revered 

 by the Church of Rome, however, affects rather the forms of religion 

 than its essence ; and some of these forms, such as the baptism of 

 infants, the celebration of certain festivals, and the like, are retained 

 and observed by the majority of Protestants, while on the whole they 

 reject tradition, and do not consider it binding. 



TRAGACANTH, familiarly termed Gum draymi, is the produce of 

 several species of the genus Astragalut. [ASTRAGALUS, in NAT. HIST. 

 Div.] The A. vena (Olivier,) a native of the north of Persia, 

 Armenia, and Asia Minor, yields the greater part of what is used in 

 Europe. Persia supplies it likewise to India, Baghdad, and BamO. 

 A. ijummifer (Labill.) yields some of the white tragacanth. A. ere- 

 liau, Lamarck (Tragacuiitlta Cretica, incanu, Touruefort), yields it 

 sparingly ; while, according to Sibthorp (' Prod. Fl. Gracse,' ii. 90), 

 the tragacanth which is used in Italy is obtained in Greece from 

 the A. arittatut '(Villars), and which, according to Sibthorp, yields the 



