833 



TRANSPORTATION. 



TRANSPORTATION. 



334 



diameter of the copper tube 0'0114 inch, or ^th of an inch. In using 

 this tube for transpiration experiments, it was coiled up into circles 

 about 10 inches in diameter. 



Mr. Graham's experiments, which are exceedingly numerous, are 

 very neat and precise in their results : the experiments of Dr. 

 Poiseuille have also an equal constancy and precision of result in the 

 passage of liquids through capillary tubes which is quite remarkable. 

 To take, for example, a few of Mr. Graham's results : the transpiration 

 Telocity of hydrogen is exactly double that of nitrogen, although the 

 relation hi density is as 1 : 14. The transpiration of carbonic oxide, 

 like the sp. gr., is also identical with that of nitiogen. The transpira- 

 tion velocity of oxygen is related to that of nitrogen in the inverse 

 ratio of the densities of these gases, that is, as 14 : 16. In equal times, 

 and with equal weights (not equal volumes) of these two gases, the 

 more heavy gas was more slowly transpired in proportion to its greater 

 density. Mixtures of oxygen and nitrogen have the mean velocity of 

 these two gases, and hence the tune of air is also found to be propor- 

 tional to its density when compared to the time of oxygen. Indeed, 

 the velocity of different gases through capillary tubes, bears a constant 

 relation to each other. The constancy of these relations, or of the 

 transpiration times, has been observed for several of the gases for tube 

 resistances, varying in amount from 1 to 1000. These relations are 

 more simple in their expression than the densities of the gases. It is, 

 indeed, very remarkable to find the velocity of hydrogen to be exactly 

 double that of nitrogen and carbonic oxide ; the velocity of nitrogen 

 and oxygen to be inversely aa the specific gravity of these gases ; the 

 velocity of binoxide of nitrogen to be the same as nitrogen and carbonic 

 oxide ; the velocity o carbonic acid and nitrous oxide to be equal and 

 directly proportional to their specific gravities when compared with 

 oxygen. In like manner, it ia found that the velocity of proto-carbu- 

 retted hydrogen is 0'8, hydrogen being = 1, the velocity of chlorine is 

 1 4 that of oxygen, of bromine vapour and sulphuric acid vapour the 

 game as oxygen, while that of ether vapour is the same as hydrogen, 

 defiant gas, ammonia, and cyanogen are equal, or nearly equal, in 

 velocity which approaches closely to double that of oxygen. Hydro- 

 sulphuric acid gas and the vapour of bi-sulphide of carbon have an 

 equal transpiration tune. The compounds of methyl have a less velo- 

 city than the corresponding compounds of ethyl, but are connected by 

 a certain constant relation. 



Among the general results obtained by Mr. Graham are the fol- 

 lowing : 2. That the resistance of capillary tubes of uniform bore to 

 the passage of any gas is directly proportional to the length of the tube. 

 3. That the velocity of the passage of equal volumes of air of the same 

 temperature, but of different densities or elasticities, is directly propor- 

 tional. 4. That rarefaction by heat has a precisely equal effect in 

 diminishing the velocity of the transpiration of equal volumes of air, 

 as the loss of density and elasticity by diminished pressure has. 5. 

 That a greater resistance in the capillary tube is required to bring out 

 the third result, or law of densities, than is apparently necessary for 

 the tirtst or second result, and a resistance still further increased, and 

 the highest of all, to bring out the fourth result, or the law of tempera- 

 tures. 6. That transpiration is promoted by density, whether due to 

 compression, to cold, or to the addition of an element in combination, 

 as the velocity of oxygen is increased by combining with carbon, with- 

 out change of volume in carbonic acid. 



With respect to the influence of transpiration on the distribution of 

 coal-gas by means of pipes, the results are similar with truly elastic 

 gases whether the tubes be capillary or many inches in diameter, pro- 

 vided the length of the tube be not less than 4000 times its diameter. 

 The small propulsive pressure applied to coal-gas is favourable to 

 transpiration as well as the great length of the mains. The velocity of 

 coal-gas should be 1 "575, air being 1 under the same pressure. With a 

 constant propulsive force in the gasometer, the flow of gas should 

 increase hi volume with a rise of the barometer or with a fall in tem- 

 perature directly in proportion to the increase of its density from either 

 of these causes. 



TRANSPORTATION (Iran* and porto), removal, banishment to 

 gome fixed place. Transportation, as a punishment for crime in Eng- 

 land, having been practically abolished, it is only in its historical point 

 of view that it will be here considered. Under CRIMES AND PUNISH- 

 MENTS ; LAW, CRIMINAL ; and PENAL SERVITUDE, will be found the 

 present state of the law with regard to the punishment of crime, and 

 the nature of the system of imprisonment. 



The statute of 30 Elizabeth, c. 4, for the banishment of dangerous 

 rogues and vagabonds, was virtually converted by James I. into an act 

 for transportation to America by a letter to the treasurer and council 

 of the colony of Virginia, in the year 1619, commanding them " to 

 send a hundred dissolute persons to Virginia, which the knight-marshal 

 would deliver to them for that purpose." Transportation is not distinctly 

 mentioned in any English statute prior to the stat. 18 Car. II., c. 3, 

 which gives a power to the judges at their discretion either to 

 execute or transport to America for life the moss-troopers of Cum- 

 berland and Northumberland. Until after the passing of the stat. 

 4 Geo. I., c. 2, continued by stat. 6 Geo. I., c. 23, this mode of punish- 

 ment was not brought into common operation. By these statutes 

 the courts were allowed * discretionary power to order felons who 

 were by law entitled to benefit of clergy to be transported to the 

 American plantations. Transportation to America under the statutes 



of George I. lasted from 1718 till the commencement of the War of 

 Independence in 1775. 



A plan for the establishment of penitentiaries, which was strongly 

 recommended by Judge Blackstone, Mr. Eden (afterwards Lord Auck- 

 land), and Mr. Howard, was taken into consideration by parliament, 

 and the act 19 Geo. III., c. 74, for the erection of penitentiaries, passed. 

 The government failed, however, to adopt the necessary measures for 

 its execution ; and transportation was resumed by an act passed in the 

 24th year of George III., which empowered his majesty in council to 

 appoint to what place beyond the seas, either within or without his 

 majesty's dominions, offenders should be transported; and by two 

 orders in council, dated December 6th, 1786, the eastern coast of Aus- 

 tralia and the adjacent islands were fixed upon. In the month of May, 

 1787, the first band of convicts left England, which in the succeeding 

 year founded the colony of New South Wales. 



By statute 5 Geo. IV., c. 84 (amended by the 11 Geo. IV., and 1 Will. 

 IV., c. 39) the crown was empowered to appoint places beyond the seas to 

 which persons under sentence or order of transportation or banishment 

 should be conveyed, the governor of the colony, or his assignee, having 

 the property in the service of the convicts. The crown was also 

 empowered to appoint places of confinement at home, either on laud or 

 on board vessels in the Thames, or other rivers or harbours, for the 

 removal and confinement of male offenders (extended by the stat. 

 16 & 17 Viet, to females) under sentence of death, but reprieved or 

 respited, or under sentence of transportation, there to remain under 

 order of the Secretary of State until entitled to their liberty, or 

 removed, or otherwise dealt with. The capital punishment for offend- 

 ers found unduly at large before the expiration of their sentence, was 

 still retained, but was subsequently abolished by the stat. 4 & 5 

 Will. IV. c. 67, which substituted transportation for life, with previous 

 imprisonment not exceeding four years. 



New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, and Norfolk Island became, 

 under these statutes and an earlier statute of George III., the principal 

 receptacles for convicts. The power of the colonial governors to remit 

 sentences was next restrained by the stat. 243 Will. IV., c. 62, they 

 being only empowered to pardon or remit labour after the convicts had 

 undergone a certain portion of their sentence ; but this statute was 

 repealed by the 6 & 7 Viet. c. 7, which provides that, instead of 

 governors of colonies remitting either absolutely or conditionally the 

 period of transportation, the govSrnors shall recommend felons to 

 government at home for pardon, and they are to be pardoned according 

 to the instructions received thereupon, such pardons having the same 

 effect as a pardon under the great seal. 



Although, as already stated, the property hi the services of convicts 

 was vested in the colonial governor, a practice prevailed in those places 

 to which offenders were transported, of granting them in certain cases 

 permission to employ themselves for their own benefit. These per- 

 missions were usually called " tickets of leave." By the stat. 6 & 7 

 Viet. c. 7, the legislature, thinking it just that such convicts should be 

 protected in their persons and in the possession of such property as 

 they might acquire by their industry, empowered them to hold per- 

 sonal property, and to maintain actions in respect thereof while their 

 tickets remained unrevoked. 



The reception of convicts having, however, become distasteful to the 

 colonies, the stat. 10 & 11 Viet. c. 67, was passed, permitting offenders 

 under sentence of transportation to be removed to any prison or peni- 

 tentiary in Great Britain ; directors of the principal convict prisons 

 being appointed afterwards under the stat. 13 & 14 Viet. c. 39. The 

 difficulty attending the reception by the colonies of transported con- 

 victs having increased, the stat. 16 & 17 Viet. c. 99, next abolished the 

 punishment of transportation for any term less than fourteen years, and 

 substituted penal servitude, giving the courts power in all cases to 

 award that punishment in lieu of transportation. 



Finally, the stat. 20 & 21 Viet. c. 3, abolished transportation alto- 

 gether as a punishment, substituting PENAL SERVITUDE ; but convicts 

 under sentence of penal servitude may still be sent beyond seas by 

 order of the Secretary of State. 



Transportation was of great value to our early colonists, as it sup- 

 plied what was so essential to their well-being cheap labour. From 

 Australia it was subsequently extended to the settlements of the Cape 

 of Good Hope, to Bermuda, and Gibraltar, but the last two were (and 

 are) more of the nature of places of penal imprisonment abroad ; and 

 with respect to Bermuda, it has been recently (1861) announced by the 

 Secretary of the Colonies that the government have adopted measures 

 for diminishing the number of convicts at Bermuda, with a view to the 

 early abolishing of transportation to that colony. 



All convicts sent to Bermuda or Gibraltar are employed by the 

 government on public works in the dockyards and fortifications. The 

 system of punishment pursued is essentially different from that which 

 has been in force in the Australian penal colonies. The convicts sent 

 to Bermuda are kept apart from the free population ; they are shut up 

 in hulks by night, and are worked in gangs by day under the superin- 

 tendence of free overseers. A small amount of wages is paid to them 

 for their labour, a portion of which they are allowed to spend, and the 

 remainder forms a fund, which they receive on becoming free. At 

 the expiration of their sentences they do not remain in Bermuda, but 

 are sent back at the expense of the government of this country. 



Mr. Bentham, Dr. Whately, the present archbishop of Dublin, and 



