449 



TURNPIKE ROADS. 



TURPENTINE. 



450 



imperfect roots are taken, or those which run to seed in autumn, then 

 the plants will have a tendency to produce seed and not bulbs. The 

 white Norfolk turnip and its varieties should be sown about midsummer 

 to have a good and heavy crop before winter. The distance at which 

 they may be left in thinning them out must depend on the variety, 

 whether it has a wide spreading top or not. The best crops both of 

 swedes and common field turnips are generally those where the tops 

 are vigorous and moderately spreading. A small top will not nourish 

 a large bulb : but when the growth is chiefly in the leaves, the bulbs 

 are seldom large. 



It may be considered as a general rule, that the most advantageous 

 mode of consuming turnips is to draw them and cut them in slices in 

 the field, to be there consumed in troughs by sheep, to which corn or 

 oil-cake, as well as hay, is regularly given. When the crop of turnips 

 is abundant, part of them may be stored for the cattle in the yard or 

 fatting-stalls, and for the milch-cows and heifers. They will require 

 nothing but good straw, if they have plenty of turnips, and no hay 

 whatever need be used, unless it be for the horses ; and even they will 

 thrive well on Swedish turnips and straw with a small quantity 

 of oats. 



Turnips are often left in the field all the winter, which greatly 

 deteriorates them. If they cannot all be fed off before Christmas, they 

 should be taken up, and the tops being cut off within an inch of the 

 crown of the root, they may be stored in long clamps five feet wide and 

 four feet high, sloped like the roof of a house and covered with straw 

 and earth, in which state they will keep till they are wanted. It is 

 advantageous to have different varieties of turnips, which will come to 

 perfection in succession ; and it is useful to sow some at different times 

 for this purpose. The small turnip, which from its rapid growth is 

 called the nimble turnip, may be sown as late as the end of August, 

 and in mild seasons will produce tolerable bulbs in winter and early in 

 spring. The frost will not injure a growing turnip so readily as one 

 which is come to perfection and the leaves of which are withered. 

 Some varieties, like the yellow Aberdeen and the green round turnip, 

 are hardier than others, and will stand the whiter well in a light and 

 dry soil. 



There are so many varieties cultivated, that it is difficult to enume- 

 rate them. The Swedish turnips may be classed according to the 

 colour and size of their tops and the shape of the bulb. The best have 

 but little stem rising from the bulb and a good tuft of leaves. The 

 substance of the turnips is of a bright yellow and has a strong smell, 

 especially when they have been kept some time. No frost will hurt 

 them, if they are kept dry ; but alternate rain and frost will do them 

 harm. When they are stored, it is advantageous that the air should 

 have free access ; and for this purpose it has been recommended to 

 place them between hurdles set upright and to slightly thatch them 

 with straw to keep out the rain. In this way they keep longer sound 

 than when put in clamps covered with straw and earth. 



Of the field turnip there are numerous varieties. The common 

 Norfolk turnip is round and flat, the bulb being half buried in the 

 ground ; it throws out no fibres, except from the slender root which 

 proceeds from the centre of the bulb. There is a subvariety which is 

 reddish at the insertion of the leaves, and another of a green hue : the 

 latter is the hardiest. The globe turnip takes its name from its shape ; 

 it rises more out of the ground, and grows to a greater size ; like the 

 last it is either entirely white or red or green near the crown. It is on 

 the whole the most productive and hardy. The tankard turnip rises 

 high out of the ground, and approaches in shape to the mangel-wurzel. 

 It grows to the greatest size ; but it is apt to become spongy if left 

 long on the ground, and its weight is not in proportion to its bulk. 

 There are red tankards and green tankards, as well as white. The 

 green round turnip is considered very hardy, and is usually sown late, 

 to be consumed after the winter. The yellow Aberdeen, although 

 somewhat less, is compact, and stands the winter well : it is a very 

 useful variety. 



Those who are possessed of a good variety will do well to raise their 

 own seed, as that which is bought cannot always be depended upon ; 

 the best-shaped middle-sized bulbs should be chosen, the leaves being 

 cut off not nearer than an inch from the crown. They should be 

 planted in a mellow soil, in rows three feet wide, and a foot from bulb 

 to bulb in the rows, about March or April. When the pods are well 

 filled with seeds, and these are round and hard, the stem should be cut 

 close to the root and carefully laid under a shed to dry. The seed will 

 ripen there without shedding, and when the pods are quite dry, the 

 seed is easily beaten out with a stick or light flail. Birds are so fond of 

 it, that a constant watch must be kept, and this is the reason why so 

 few farmers grow then- own seed. Turnip seed is often raised in the 

 gardens of cottagers, whose children keep off the birds, and it is a 

 branch of industry which every farmer should encourage. He can 

 readily see that good bulbs only are used, and he secures the seeds he 

 wants, while the cottager is well paid for his trouble. This is perhaps 

 the most convenient mode of raising the seed on a large farm. It is 

 best to use fresh seed, as it always germinates sooner. Machines 

 which sow the seed and manure in drills at the same time may be had 

 of most of the manufacturers of improved agricultural implements. 



TURNPIKE ROADS. [ROADS.] 



TURNPIKE TRUSTS. Turnpike-roads are a peculiar species of 

 highways placed by the authority of acts of parliament under the 



AET8 AND SCI. DIV. VOL. VHt. 



management of trustees or commissioners, who are invested with cer- 

 tain powers for the construction, management, and repair of such 

 roads. 



Besides the various local acts, there are several acts of parliament 

 called General Turnpike Acts, the provisions of which extend and 

 apply to all existing and subsequent local acts, and which are too 

 numerous for citation here. The General Highway Act (5 & 6 Wm. 

 IV. c. 50) also contains certain provisions applicable to turnpike-roads ; 

 but, by the 113th section, does not extend to them except where 

 expressly mentioned. 



The trustees of turnpike-roads consist of persons nominated for that 

 purpose in the Local Acts, who must be persons possessed of a certain 

 property qualification, and of the justices of peace of the county or 

 counties through which the roads pass ; but all persons who are con- 

 tractors or otherwise personally interested in the roads are disqualified 

 from being trustees. (3 Geo. IV. c. 126, ss. 61, 62, et seq.) They are 

 exempt from personal liability for acts done in pursuance of their 

 powers, and may sue and be sued in the name of their clerk. (7 & 8 

 Geo. IV. c. 24, ss. 2 & 3 ; 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, s. 74.) 



For the purpose of providing the necessary funds for making and 

 maintaining the roads under their charge, trustees are usually em- 

 powered to receive moneys by way of subscription, upon which interest 

 is payable to the subscribers out of the produce of the tolls which the 

 trustees are by the local acts empowered to levy upon persons using 

 the roads. Power is also given them to borrow money upon mortgage 

 of the tolls. (3 Geo. IV. c. 128, s. 81.) 



The enactments of the General Highway Act (5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 50, 

 s. 94), relating to summary proceedings before justices to compel re- 

 pairs of highways, extend the jurisdiction of the justices to turnpike 

 officers, where the highway out of repair is part of a turnpike-road ; 

 and while the liability to statute labour existed, it was exigible as well 

 in respect of turnpike-roads as other highways ; but the obligation of 

 statute labour seems to be now entirely abolished by the repeal, in the 

 5 & 6 Wm. IV. c. 50, of the statutes under which statute labour was 

 compounded for. 



The amounts of toll exigible on any turnpike road are regulated by 

 the table of tolls which is contained in the local act by which the trust 

 is constituted, and no tolls can be charged except such as are given by 

 clear and unambiguous language in the Act ; and there are various 

 cases of exceptions. 



Tolls upon turnpike-roads are in most cases made payable once a day 

 only at any one gate, and payment at one gate generally gives exemp- 

 tion from payment at other gates within a certain distance. Post-horses 

 having passed through any gate may return toll-free before nine o'clock 

 in the morning of the following day, and when horses, having passed 

 through a gate, return the same day or within eight hours, drawing a 

 carriage, the toll paid on the horses is to be deducted. (3 Geo. IV. 

 c. 126, ss. 29, 30.) 



The General Turnpike Acts contain various provisions regulating 

 the weights to be allowed to carriages passing along turnpike-roads, 

 and imposing additional tolls for overweight, and also provisions regu- 

 lating the amount of toll leviable upon waggons and carts depending 

 upon the construction, breadth, and tire of their wheels. (3 Geo. IV. 

 SB. 7, 9, &a ; 4 Geo. IV. c. 95, ss. 2, 5, &c.) 



Trustees are enabled to erect toll-gates and toll-houses, the property 

 in which is vested in them, and are required to put up at every toll- 

 gate a table of the tolls leviable thereat, and to provide tickets denoting 

 payment of toll to be delivered to persons paying the same. (9 Geo. IV. 

 c. 77, s. 3, &c. ; 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, ss. 37, 60 ; and 4 Geo. IV. c. 95, 

 s. 28.) The remedies for the recovery of tolls, and the penalties for 

 evading them are contained in 3 Geo. IV. c. 126, s. 39, &c. 



The trustees of every turnpike-road have power to enter into com- 

 positions for any term not exceeding a year at a time, with any person 

 for tolls payable at any toll-gates under their management. (4 Geo IV. 

 c. 95, s. 13.) They may also, though not empowered to do so by the 

 local act, reduce the tolls leviable under the authority of the act, and 

 advance them again to any amount not exceeding the rates authorised 

 by the act ; provided that where money has been borrowed on the 

 credit of the tolls, no reduction shall be made without the consent of 

 the persons entitled to five-sixths of the money due. (3 Geo. IV. c. 126, 

 ss. 43, 44.) Trustees may also farm out the tolls, though no express 

 power be given in the local act. 



The General Turnpike Acts contain, besides numerous provisions 

 with respect to the appointment and duties of officers, the meetings 

 and proceedings of trustees, the making of causeways, ditches, aud 

 drains, the erection of milestones, the watering of roads, the prevention 

 and removal of annoyances and nuisances, the marking of carriages 

 and regulations as to drivers, the apprehension of offenders, the re- 

 covery and application of penalties, the limitation of actions, &c. ; all 

 which general enactments have been made from time to time for the 

 purpose of shortening and lessening the expense of private road bills, 

 so that almost the only objects which now require to be attended to 

 in the construction of road acts are the appointment of trustees, the 

 number and situations of toll-gates, and the amounts of tolls. (Chitty's 

 ' Statutes,' vol ii., Highways. 



TURNSOLE, or TOURNSOLE. [ARCHIL ; CoLOURixo MATTERS.] 



TURPENTINE. The well-known liquid to which the word turpen- 

 tine is now so commonly applied, is only the volatile portion of tur- 



Q a 



