VMYKHSAL DISCHARGER. 



i MVEBUTOB. 



thU form the particular character of the predicate u expressed. But 

 if we lay " AS are not B," even though only one A tbould be here 

 spoken of, yet erery a U compared with it and rejected. What U 

 meant U, that " thU one A i* not any one whatsoever of all possible us." 



::al logic, though an excellent exercise, U In wmo respect* a 

 dead letter unlea the student take pain* to trace the numerous 

 idiom* of language in which the affirmative or negative proposition U 

 conveyed. So very nice are the circumstances, frequently <>f in. r- 

 petition or of context, by which the universal form U distinguished 



the particular, that it would be easy to lay down an isolated 

 *^ of which no one should be able to nay which of the two it i. 



For example, " homicide* are justifiable which are committed in self- 

 d.-fence," and ' homicide* which are committed in self-defence are 

 justifiable." Though probably the leaning of a grammatical critic 

 would be to the supposition that the first ahould stand for " All 

 justifiable homicides are those which are committed in self-defence," 

 and the second for " Among the justifiable homicides are," ftc.. yet no 

 person would be sure of an author's meaning, whichever of the pre- 

 ceding forms he might use, until he had examined the context. 



UNIYKKs.U. III.SCHAHGER. [ELECTRICAL BATTEBT; ELEC- 

 TBICITT, COMMON.] 



1 NIVKltSAl, JOINT. [HOOKE'B JmjiT.l 



UNIVERSE. This name is generally used, as the word irorM onco 

 was, to signify the collection of all created things. In modern 

 language, "the world" generally refers to the earth only, and the 

 universe to all stars and planets. Before the reception of the Copcrni- 

 can theory, " the world," which signifies what we now call the 

 universe, was naturally a synonyme for " the earth," which was sup- 

 posed to be the principal part of the universe, all the other celestial 

 bodies being only satellites. But since the time when other planets 

 have been advanced to the dignity of being separate " worlds," the 

 term universe has been gradually introduced into common language. 



By the technical term Theory of the Univene is always understood 

 what is known of the general arrangement of planets, stars, ic., and of 

 their connection with one another. 



rSIVKKSlTIKS, lay corporations to which, since the 12th 

 century, the charge of educating the members of what ore called the 

 learned professions has in a great measure been confided throughout 

 Europe and the colonies founded by European states. [L'NivtusiTV.] 



The three oldest learned institutions to which the name University 

 can with propriety be applied are those of Paris, Bologna and Salerno. 



It is impossible to fix a precise date at which the educational 

 institutions of Paris can be said to have assumed the form and name of 

 a university. As for the name (unircraitas), it was uot confined in the 

 middle ages to scientific bodies ; it was used in a sense equivalent to 

 <>:ir word corporation. There were "universities of tailors "in those 

 days. It was long before the name settled down into its present 

 acceptation. The school of Bologna was a " universitas cholariiim," 

 that of Paris a " universitas magistrorum," because the former was a 

 corporation of students, the Utter of teachers. The oldest printed 

 statutes of the university of Bologna are called " Statuta et privilegia 

 altnae Universitatis Juristarum Gymnasii Bononiensis ; " and in not a 

 few universities we find an " universitas Juristarum " and an " uni- 

 versitas artUUrura " side by side : from this it appears that " uni- 

 veriUs"at one time approached nearly to the meaning of our word 

 "faculty." What we now term a university was long designated 

 indifferently " schola," " studium generate," or " gymnasium." The 

 occasion of this vacillating nomenclature U explained by the history of 

 universities. 



The oldest document in which the designation " univcrsitos " is 

 applied to the university of Paris, is a decretal of Innocent III., about 

 the beginning of the 13th century. But as early as 1180 two decretals 

 had been issued by Alexander III., the first of which ordained that in 

 France no person should receive money for permission to teach. The 

 g' - of Vicentinus says expressly, that this prohibition was directed 

 against the chancellor of the university of Paris; and the second 

 decretal alluded to exempts the then rector, Petrus Comestor, from the 

 operation of the first ; and much earlier than any legislative provisions 

 of popes or kings we find the foundations of the university laid. 



To almost every cathedral and monastery of Europe there had been, 

 from a very early period, attached a school, in which all aspirant* to 

 priestly ordination, and such laymen as wished and could afford it, 

 were instructed in the Tritium and Quadnrium. It appears from the 

 letters of Abelard (died 1142), and from other contemporary sources, 

 that the poorer cstabli>ihtneiitK intrusted the conduct of this school to 

 one of their number called the Scholoaticus ; and that the wealthier 

 bodies maintained a Scholasticus to instruct the junior pupils in 

 grammar and philosophy, and a Thcologus to instruct the more 

 advanced in theology. About the time of Abelard the great concourse 

 of student* who flocked to the episcopal school of Paris appears to have 

 rendered it necessary to assemble the two i-Usens of |>upils in different 

 localities ; the juniors were sent to the church of St. Julian, while the 

 theologians remained in that of Notre Dame. All who bad studied a 

 certain time, and undergone certain trials were entitled to be raised by 

 the rector of toe schools to the grade of teachers. This was done by 

 three successive step*. The candidate was first raised to the rank of 

 B>artr, in which be acted for a year as assistant to a 'loctor (or tech<-r) ; 

 then to the rank ul baccalaurcus, in which he taught for a year, under 



the superintendence of his doctor, pupils of his own ; lastly, to the 

 grade of independent doctor. The number of student* rendered the 

 profession of a teacher at Paris lucrative, aud many from all nation* 

 embraced it According to the custom of those unsettled times, they 

 gradually formed themselves into a corporation for mutual si.. 

 The corporation consisted of the teachen of all the three grades, and 

 stood under a rector elected by themselves. According to an agree- 

 ment entered into in 1200, the rector was elected by the residents of 

 the four nation* French, English or German, Picards, and Norman*. 

 IMore this time, in 1200, Philip Augustus had confirmed the exclusive 

 control of the rector over all student* and teacher*. The local separa- 

 tion of the artist* from the theologians would have been of little con- 

 sequence, but for the rapid progress which the Aristotelian philosophy 

 made during and immediately after the life of Abelard. The specula- 

 tion* into which studious men were led by the writings of Aristotle 

 necessarily brought them to deal wi th topics which had hitherto been con- 

 ceived to lie within the exclusive domain of theology. The consequence* 

 were frequent and bold attempts by individuals to modify the received 

 doctrines of the church, clamours about heresy, persecutions, and 

 counter-persecutions. All these contributed to bring about a Ucit 

 compromise between the professional theologians and the admirers of 

 speculative philosophy : the former were left in possession of the 

 pulpit and chairs of theology ; the latter confined themselves oat' 

 to literature and philosophy, and sought to avoid occasioning scandal 

 by rarely overstepping the bounds of abstract inquiry. The progre** 

 of this tacit agreement may bo traced in the writing* of the learned 

 from the time of Abelard down to that of Erasmus ; under it gi 

 a class of literati, who may be called, although many of them took 

 orders, secular scholars. It was the same incompatibility of tl 

 spirit of speculative inquiry with the stability of a dogmatic theology 

 which led to this compromise, that embittered the dispute about the 

 claim of the mendicant orders to establish chairs of theology in the 

 University of Paris about the middle of the 13th century. Thi 

 tmversy ended in the secession of the doctors of theology fro: 

 university, as it bad for some time been called, and their incorporating 

 themselves into a separate college or faculty. Their example was 

 followed not long after by the doctors of canon law and mudicii. 

 formed themselves into separate faculties. These faculties consisted 

 exclusively of the actually teaching doctors (doctores regentes) of theae 

 three branches of knowledge. The masters and bachelors remained 

 members of the university proper, which, from the secession of the 

 theologians, canonists, and doctors of medicine, came in time to be 

 called the Faculty of the Artists. From this period the university 

 consisted of seven bodies or sub-incorporations the four nations under 

 their procurators, and the three faculties under their deans. The 

 rector was the head of the university ; he was elected by the procu- 

 rators of the old university ; no doctor of theology, canon law, or 

 medicine could be elected or take port in the election. At first the 

 rector wan chosen by the procurators, but latterly by four electors, 

 specially elected by each nation for that purpose. The Prevot of Paris 

 (so long as that officer retained any authority) was the conservator of 

 the royal privileges in the university ; the bishops of Meaux, Beauvais, 

 and SenlU, of the papal privileges. In respect of criminal jurisdiction, 

 the university stood immediately under the king, till A.D. 1200, when 

 its members were transferred to the episcopal court of Pori* : about 

 the middle of the 15th century they were transferred to the Parlia- 

 ment of Paris. In regard to civil jurisdiction the University was 

 originally under the bishop; in 1310 it was transferred to the court of 

 the Prevdt of Paris; when the Chatelet succeeded to the j 

 functions of the prevdt, the university was transferred to that court. 

 The rector, with the procurators and deans, formed a court, which had 

 jurisdiction in all complaints against teachers for iucompeteney or 

 neglect of duty ; and against students for disobedience to their teachen, 

 the rector, or the discipline of the university, and in all cases between 

 student*, lodging-keepers, booksellers, stationers, &c. From the 

 decisions of the rectorial court there was an appeal to the university, 

 and from it to the Parliament of Paris. Each faculty (that of the 

 artists included), had it* own common school. lu the faculty of 

 canonists, there were six professors (or doctores regent**); the number 

 in the other faculties varied. At an early period colleges w.ie 

 established within the University of Paris by private families or 

 religious orders. Originally they were intended exclusively for poor 

 scholars, who were to live in them subject to certain rules of discipline. 

 By degrees, however, as more numerous and able teachers were 

 employed in these colleges, they assumed the character of boarding- 

 house* for all classes of student*. In the 16th century the student* 

 who did not reside in any college had come to be regarded as excep- 

 tions from the general custom, and were nicknamed "martinet*." 

 The college of the Sorbonne (founded in 1250) was commonly n 

 as identical with the theological faculty, because the members oi the 

 one were most frequently members of the other also. The promotions 

 however continued to be mode by the officers of the university, 

 although the charge of education hod been in a great measure 

 engrossed by the colleges. Degree* were conferred in the faculties of 

 theology, canon law, and medicine, by the deans, with the concurrence 

 of the chancellor of the Cathedral of Notre Dame ; in the faculty of 

 artists, by the rector, with the concurrence either of the chancellor of 

 Notre Dame or the chancellor of St. (Jenevjeve. 



