VARNISH-TREES, 



in two kind* of liquid*, ethylatod and methylated. The gum* 

 are of tin- usual kinds ; but the v.irninhri are grouped in one <>i 

 of two clUMM, according to the class of solvent. employed. A 

 wood (pint, methylated (pint! peat oil, shale nil, beuzol*, aii<l coal 

 naphtha, are among tho solvents named. Yoriuiu proportion* art 

 named between ti ingredient*, according to the kind of vaniuh 

 intended to be produced. We may her* mention that Mr. Cooky 

 ilraiorinss no le*t than aixty-four kind* of rornuk, of which the chirf 

 are placed under the litmilingi of amber, balloon, black, body, book- 

 undent', carriage, Chinese, copal, crystal, drying, Dutch, etching, 

 lluiiUe, furniture, glass, gun-barrel, hair, india-rubber, Italian, Jin, 

 Uo, mahogany, maatio, oak, oil, leather, picture, printers', spirit, t< \, 

 transfer, turpentine, and wax varnish. 



Two special kind* of varnish are connected with the proomei of 

 fmtck poiuknta and lav/ verity. 



PrmA puluking depend* ou the use of a varnish which, from the 

 ingredient* in it* composition, admit* of being rubbed until great 

 smoothness and gloa* are produced. The belt French polish i* made 

 of pole aheliao and rectified spirits of wine ; in the next belt quality, 

 wood-naphtha is tubitituted for the spirits of wine. Sometime* mat- 

 tic, gum elenii, or gum *andarac are uaed initend of shellac ; and a 

 little linaeed-oil or oopal i* mixed with the spirit. When intended to 

 modify the colour of the wood to which the French poli*h i* to be 

 applied, email proportioni of other ingredient* ore added, *uch a* 

 dragon'* blood, alkanet root, red aandalwood, turmeric, gamboge, to. 

 French poluh i* never required to be BO limpid OB other varnishes. 

 When an article of wood i* to be French polished, the surface is 

 brought to a very imooth and clean state. A rubber.i* made by rolling 

 up a itrip of thick woollen cloth, mid using the soft elastic edge of the 

 coil. The rubber, being wetted with the French polish, i* inclosed in 

 a doubled cloth of aoft linen, the outer surface of which i* slightly 

 touched with a drop of raw linaeed-oil, and the workman rub* it steadily 

 over the wood, until the rubber and linen become nearly dry. !!; 

 supplies a second time, and again a tUird, and perhaps a fourth time, 

 rubbing the wood steadily until each portion of polish i* worked in. 

 Very little of the composition i* actually hud on ; the effect being 

 duo rather to skilful manipulation than to a thick layer of glossy 

 material. 



lanjtur differs from ordinary varnish and from French polish in 

 being applied either to metal or to hard wood; in other respect* 

 lacquer* may be regarded as spirit-varnishes. One kind of hard wood 

 lacquer i* made in the proportion of 2 IDS. of shellac to 1 gallon of 

 spirit of wine ; and another, in that of 1 Ib. of seed lac and 1 Ib. of 

 white resin to 1 gallon of spirit of wine. Among many kinds of lacquer 

 for metal, one consist* of 1 Ib. of the beet pole shellac to 2 gallons of 

 spirit of wine. Hard wood lacquer i* mostly used for turned work : 

 it is applied on a wad or rag while the turned article is rotating, with 

 a few drop* of linseed-oil to enable it to work smoothly. For flat wood- 

 work, lacquer is applied much in the same way aa ordinary spirit- 

 varuuh, with camel-hair brushes. Lacquer for uietoU differs somewhat 

 in iU composition from that for wood. The metal, when about to be 

 lacquered, i* cleaned from all grease and oil, then heated to about 

 300* Falir., at a laoquering stove, or on a plate heated by gas, or over. a 

 charcoal fire, or on a red-hot piece of iron, or on a vessel of boiling 

 water or steam ; this heating I* necessary to enable the lacquer to 

 attach itself firmly to the metal, and to moke the spirit evaporate 

 quickly. The lacquer, which i* sometimes coloured to give it a rich 

 tint, U applied with a brush. 



VARMSH-TKKES. Thi* name has boon applied to several trees 

 which exude liquid rosins naturally or from incision*. These become 

 dry iu the air, and ore employed for preserving various articles from 

 illueuce of the air, water, or insect*, aa well as for giving them 

 greater brilliancy, and also for varnishing pictures. Most of thorn ore 

 iu India, liunua, and China. Some of these exude an acrid 

 resinous juice, which on drying becomes black, and is used aa a varnish, 

 a* that of the Anacanlium ocadcnlalc, or cashew-nut tree. The mark- 

 ing-nut, or Scnucarjiui anararilium, ho* it* outer coat covered with 

 cell* oiled with a similar block, oily-looking, acrid juice, which is much 

 used as a marking-ink. Aayia m, of Loureiru i* said to produce 

 th* genuine Chineeo varnish with which the .lull-rout fancy articles ore 

 lacquered, and which i* black when simply dried, but becomes coloured 

 by the admixture of different pigments. The Japan varnUh of Kwmp- 

 fcr and Thunberg is JViut rernijr, and that of tho Malayan island* 

 ataamaria wnwrtf so. Dr. Buchanan inform* us that the juice of 

 Uoliyania lovpifvlia is used in Malabar for varnishing shields. Tho 

 rarniah tree f tho Burmese i* described under MM. \.\oiiiuiutA, in 

 NAT. HIST. Div. A very fine liquid varnish i* also yielded by Valeria. 

 md-raaud V. lateatfuiia. 



V ASKS, derived from the Latin KM, analogous to the German fan, 

 a word in iu widest sens* compelling all vessels intended to contain 

 fluids or other substance*, and made of various material*, In ancient 

 art the Unn i* applied to all ancient vessels, but in modern it is 

 limited to those used for ornament The shapes of vans are various, 

 from a cup or saucer to that called vat* or urn in the narrower sens* 

 of the word. Those of ancient nation* are distinguished by their 

 shape, form, and material, and may be cloned into vases destined to 

 hold and preserve fluid* or other sub. 



ng era ters, jars, and 



bowl*; jug* and cruet* for pouring out liquid*, and cups for drinking. 



In Egypt, from the seems represented in the tombs and temples, 

 elegant large vase* of the preciou* metals inlaid with lapis k/.uli or 

 enamel, aud chased with figures of animals or flowers, seem to have 

 been manufactured; and also by the neighbouring nation* of Asia, 

 subdued by the arm* of Egypt. Of similar form* were vessel* of 

 bronze, used for culinary and other purposes. Serpentine basalt and 

 arsgonlte, or oriental alabaster, especially the Utter, were favourite 

 material*, and enamelled ftyence, or porcelain, principally of Una 

 colour, and opaque gloss, were used for smaller vases for the toilet, 

 Pottery was employed for all purpose*. Peculiar vases, popularly 

 called rannpi, were used for holding the viscera of the dead, 

 form* of Kgyptian vases are simple, the prevalent being the oval and 

 expanding lotus shape ; the decorations ore plain and the ornaments 

 few. The Assyrian vases resemble in their form the Egyptian, but 

 are sometimes ornamented with relief subject*. There are no vase* of 

 the other oriental races of antiquity, and although Sidon, in the days 

 of ll.imcr, was famous for it* silver vases, no specimens have survived 

 tune or destruction. Alabaster vases are, however, known to have 

 been used by the Assyrians and Persians, and have also been found 

 in the early sepulchres of Greece and Ktruris, Several remarkable 

 vase* of alabaster exist, inscribed with the names of Persian monarch* 

 in hieroglyphic and cuneiform writing. In Asia, vase* were often 

 made of precious stones, as agate and onyx, and one of the king* of 

 Pontus, Mithridates VI., had a collection of 2000. The anthrax, or 

 carbuncle, and chrysoprase, and especially crystal, were often used for 

 vases of small dimensions. Besides the larger vases of marble, prin- 

 cipally urns, amphora, cups, lavers, and labra of large size, and enriched 

 with reliefs, were in use during the latter days of Greece and the 

 Roman empire. In the best days of tho Athenian commonwealth, 

 large lecythi of Pentelic marble, frequently embellished with sepulchral 

 reliefs, were placed on the graves of the dead. 



One of the most remarkable classes of ancient vase* wss the myr 

 myrrtiea, myrr/iina, the material of which has been a source 

 troversy since the revival of letter*. It i* supposed to have been 

 Chinese porcelain by Scaliger, jade by Hager, sardonyx by Le 1 

 alabaster, onyx, soapstono, jade, opal, mother of pearl, a kind of amber, 

 meerschaum, or an indurated resin ; but the opinion of Rozicre and 

 Thiersch, that it was fluor-spar, is most favourably received. Tho 

 difficulty, however, of reconciling the description of Pliny wit 

 appearance of tho substances supposed to be the true myrrhino, doe* 

 not appear to have been entirely overcome. According to Pliny, 

 it was lirst brought to Rome from Asia, by Pompey, and exhibited 

 in his triumph, B.C. 62. The countries where it was found wero 

 Parthia and Carmania, and it was dug out of the earth like rock 

 crystal, or, according to popular report, baked in Parthian furnaces, and 

 is often mentioned in connection with glass, as if some variety (if that 

 material [Schol. ad Lucan; and Oudendorp, t. i. p. 292; vol. ii. v. 

 880], as semi-transparent, with an opalescent gloss. The most valuable 

 kind had spots changing into purple and white, or into both these 

 colours, and others which were iridescent, while any trausluconcy 

 diminished its value. The material was exceedingly fragile, 01 

 fumed with myrrh, but this was probably owing to the former contents 

 of the vases. The material did not admit of the making of vessels of 

 large size, it rarely being found larger than small plinths, abari, or 

 thicker than goblets. Pompey indeed dedicated to the Capitolimi 

 Jupiter small jugs, capidet, and cups of this substance, which soon after 

 became fashionable and the most precious of all materials, costly cups 

 of it being used by the wealthy, out of which they drank the warmed 

 Kilt-mi. .11 wine (Martial, xiv. 113). Tho value of cups of large size 

 was immense ; one of tho capacity of 3 sextarii, or 44 pints, being sold 

 for 70 scstertia, or 565i 6*. Itl., and a fragment, in the day's of Nero 

 deemed a rarity, although according to the jurists they were not 

 considered gems, lai/illi ; and this emperor gave 10 scstertia, or alxnit 

 . for a small jug, caplt, of this material. Still more precious 

 was the myrrhine bowl, of the value of 300 sestertia, or -J I, J.V , which 

 T. 1'. nonius destroyed, when on the point of death, in order that it 

 should not fall into the hands of Nero. A kind of false myrrhino, of 

 opaque gloss, with blue, yellow, white, and purple bands, was manu- 

 factured in later times at Alexandria (' Thiersch ueber die Vau Myrr* 

 hina,' Bayer, Akad. Wissensch., t. i. 4to. 1856, 35, p. 443). 



Vase* of glass of small dimensions were in very early use : amongst 

 the Ivyptiaus small amphora; and jugs, and toilet phials of opaqua 

 glass, dated, a* early as B.C. 1450,in the reign of Thothmes 111. ; 

 the earliest known dated specimen of transparent glass is a small dicta 

 found at Mimroud, bearing the name of tiargiua, B.C. 711. Various 

 vases, cups, phiate, and jugs, were in extensive use amongst the Greeks 

 and Romans; and in tho middle period of the Empire, Alexandria and 

 Sidon supplied Rome with glass vases, especially the makers Ireiuous 

 and Arta* of Sidou. To this age are to be referred the celebrated 

 Portland and Auldjo vases in the British Museum, mode of transparent 

 deep blue glass, with friezes and arabesques of opaque white, exquisitely 

 polished, produced by cutting down the upper strata of white glass in 

 n. rof a cameo. About the 3rd century, A.D., and later, re- 

 markable gloss cups with undercut letters in relief, or patera engraven 

 with subjects, appear, the so-called dialnla. To this and an earlier 

 period belong th* remarkable vise* of madrepore glow, chiefly i 

 At a later age glass vessel* were ornamented with gilded subject* at 

 tho bottom, enclosed by two layers of glass. Glass vase* of a re-murk- 



