WHEAT. 



WHEAT. 



600 



with the earthy ingredients ; where it can have a firm hold by its roots, 

 and can at the same time strike the fibres of them downwards, as well 

 as around, in search of food. When it meets with such a soil and is 

 deposited at a proper depth, it vegetates slowly, pushing to the surface 

 one cylindrical filament, while numerous fibres strike into the soil 

 from the seed. These supply the plant with regular nourishment, and 

 in due time a knot is formed at the surface of the soil, from which 

 several roots and stems branch out. This is called the tillering of the 

 wheat. The new roots near the surface soon become the chief source 

 of nourishment, and in a rich compact soil, where there ia room, nume- 

 rous stems arise, forming a tuft, and each of these in time bears a large 

 ear well filled with seeds ; so that from a very moderate quantity of 

 seed a great return is produced. The strong stems supporting each 

 other are well able to resist the effect of storms and rains, which would 

 lay weaker plants level with the ground. The effect of surface manur- 

 ing immediately before the seed is sown is to produce too rapid a 

 growth, weakening the straw, and increasing its quantity often at the 

 expense of the ear, which does not attain its proper development. 

 This is called running to straw. Ammoniacal and nitrogenous manures 

 have this effect ; which is corroborated by late experiments with sul- 

 phate of ammonia, saltpetre, and nitrate of soda. 



Lime has been often considered as the most efficacious manure for 

 wheat, even more than dung. As long as there is organic matter in 

 the noil, lime acts beneficially, and the richer the land, which does not 

 contain carbonate of lime already, the more powerful the effect of 

 liming. But experience has proved that lime has little effect on poor 

 soils, until they are first manured with animal and vegetable substances. 

 To produce good wheat then, the land should be gradually brought 

 to the proper degree of fertility, by abundant manuring for preparatory 

 crops, which will not suffer from an over-dose of dung, and will leave 

 in the soil a sufficient quantity of humus, intimately blended with it, 

 for a crop of wheat. Clover is a plant which will bear a considerable 

 forcing, and so are beans, and both are an excellent preparation for 

 wheat. The roots left in the ground from a good crop of either, decay 

 slowly, and thus furnish a regular supply of food for the wheat sown 

 in the next season. Potatoes also admit of much forcing, but the 

 necessary loosening of the soil for this crop renders it less fit as a pre- 

 paration for wheat. Experience has fully proved that, as a general 

 rule, it is better to sow barley and clover after potatoes, and let them 

 be succeeded by wheat. 



Although wheat thrives best on heavy soils, and without due pre- 

 paration produces only scanty and uncertain crops in those which are 

 naturally light and loose, it may be made to give a very good return in 

 soils which would once have been thought fitted only for the growth 

 of rye and oats. But then the texture and composition of these soils 

 must have been greatly improved by judicious tillage and manuring. 

 While the heavy soils are repeatedly ploughed and pulverised to render 

 them mellow, the lighter are rendered more compact by marling, 

 where this can be readily done, by adding composts in which the prin- 

 cipal earth is clay, and especially by such plants as have substantial and 

 long roots, by which the soil is kept together, such as clover, lucern, 

 sainfoin, and other grasses. If these plants have been well manured, 

 and cover the ground well, keeping in the moisture, the soil will have 

 become sufficiently compact to bear wheat. One ploughing is then quite 

 sufficient, and if a heavy land-presser is made to follow two ploughs 

 and press in the furrows, so as to leave deep smooth drills eight or 

 nine inches apart, in which seed can find a solid bed, there will be 

 every probability of a good crop of wheat, which will come up in 

 regular rows, the roots being at such a depth as to run no risk of 

 wanting moisture till the stem has arisen to its full height, and the 

 ear is formed : a few showers at that critical time will make the grain 

 swell, and insure a good crop. 



On some soils it may not be judicious to attempt to sow wheat; but 

 these are the poorest loose sands, which naturally would bear only oats 

 and buckwheat ; on these, unless they can be abundantly marled, it is 

 much better to sow rye. When wheat is sown on light soils in good 

 heart, it grows vigorously in spring, if it has not been injured by the 

 frost, which is very apt to raise up the roots and throw them out of 

 the ground. The driving of sheep over the field presses the roots into 

 the ground, and prevents this throwing out ; but a vigorous growth of 

 straw is not always a sure sign of a good crop at harvest, as many 

 farmers know by sad experience : what would be advisable in heavy 

 soils is not always so in lighter. A heavy rolling in spring after a 

 light harrowing is very useful at a time when the surface is moist. It 

 closes the pores and checks the evaporation : and the tighter the 

 surface can be made the better the chance there is of a fair crop. The 

 Norfolk rotation, as it is generally called, in which wheat is sown ut'ter 

 clover, is the only one well adapted for wheat on light soils. The 

 manure having been put abundantly for the turnips, and the land being 

 freed from weeds, the barley which follows is generally a good crop ; 

 the clover, which is sown in this, is trodden in the reaping and carry- 

 ing of the barley : and there is only one ploughing from the time 

 the barley is sown to the sowing of the wheat. If this be dibbled on 

 the turned sward of the clover, the land will receive another treading 

 by the dibblers, the seed will be regularly deposited at a proper depth, 

 and no preparation of light land can be more likely to produce good 

 wheat. On heavy soils the process must be varied; the surface, 

 instead of being rendered more compact, will often be go bound as to 



require to be stirred by harrowing or hoeing before the wheat plant 

 can properly tiller. If a farmer is anxious to have good crops of wheat, 

 he must not rest satisfied after he has ploughed, manured, and sown : 

 he must watch the growth of this important crop daily, and use the 

 means which experience and observation have suggested to assist the 

 growth and to remove the causes of failure. 



In either case it is of importance to sow the proper quantity of seed 

 per acre in rows far enough apart. One bushel per acre is enough on 

 well-cultivated soils two bushels are not too much where there is 

 liability to loss by water, wireworm, and weather. If sown by drill 

 from 10 to 12 inches is a proper interval between the rows. 



In heavy soils nothing is more detrimental than excess of moisture. 

 Even in well-drained fields the water will stand too long in the 

 furrows if there is not a proper outlet for it. The furrows should be 

 well cleared out with the spade as soon as the seed is sown, drilled, or 

 dibbled, the earth being thrown evenly over the surface of the stitches, 

 and not left in an unsightly ridge, which crumbles down with the 

 furrow at the first frost. In proper places and at regular distances 

 deeper water furrows should be dug out after the plough has ploughed 

 a deep furrow in the intended Hue ; and this should then be finished 

 as is said above : so that if a heavy fall of rain should come suddenly, 

 the water would have a regular course and outlet into the ditches 

 which lie in the lowest part of the land, without soaking into the soil, 

 which is already too retentive of moisture. It is chiefly in spring and 

 when snow melts that there should be a daily inspection of the wheat- 

 field. An experienced eye going along the bottom of the ridges of a large 

 field will discover at once whether there is any stoppage of the water; 

 and by means of a spade or shovel it will be remedied with little 

 trouble. When the surface binds, as it does in some soils, and prevents 

 the access of air to the roots, the land is harrowed or hoed, and in a 

 few days the effect will be apparent. 



It is a very common notion that good wheat and beau land is not 

 well adapted to the growth of roots, especially of such as are usually 

 fed off the land by sheep, because the treading of animals is injurious 

 in winter and spring, when these crops are usually wanted ; and if 

 they are carted off, the wheels and the horses make such impressions 

 as are equally detrimental or more so. But all roots, even the white 

 turnip, will grow luxuriantly on heavy soils well prepared and manured ; 

 and they may be so managed as to be taken off before the winter. The 

 laud being ploughed immediately on the removal of the roots, will be 

 well prepared for wheat, or, when mellowed by the winter's frost, may 

 be sown in spring with beans, barley, or oats. The manure will be 

 incorporated with the soil, even if it has been put on in a very fresh 

 state for the roots, which can only be recommended on very compact 

 soils. If the root crops are well cleaned, fallows may be avoided, or 

 at least recur very seldom, and then only when root weeds have accu- 

 mulated from neglect. 



When the wheat has blossomed, and the grain in the ear is fully 

 formed, it should be watched, and as soon as the seed feels of the con- 

 sistence of tough dough, and the straw is dry and yellow below tlus 

 ear, it should be reaped. The skin of the grain will be thinner, and 

 its substance will harden readily by mere drying, while the straw is 

 better fodder for the cattle. It is found by experience that the 

 increase of flour by adopting this method is very considerable. The 

 operation of reaping is now best done by the reaping machine. 



The choosing of wheat for seed is a matter of great importance. 

 Some farmers like to change their seed often ; others sow the pro- 

 duce of their own land continually, and both seem persuaded that 

 their method is the best. The fact is, that it is not always the 

 finest wheat which makes the best seed; but it depends on the 

 nature of the land on which it grew. Some soils are renowned far and 

 wide for producing good seed, and it is well known that this seed 

 degenerates in other soils, so that the original soil is resorted to for 

 fresh seed. 



While the wheat is growing it is exposed to various accidents, which 

 it is often difficult to foresee, and more difficult to guard against. The 

 smut and burnt-ear are diseases which may be generally prevented by 

 a proper preparation of the seed before it is sown. Many corrosive 

 substances have been recommended to steep the seed in, such as bluo 

 vitriol, one pound to a quarter of a grain, dissolved in water enough to 

 wet every seed. It seems, however, that washing the seed well with 

 plain water, or with salt and water, and afterwards drying it with quick- 

 lime, sufficiently destroys the germ of the smut to prevent its propa- 

 gation. The most common steep is water in which so much salt has been 

 dissolved as will enable it to float an egg. In this the seed may be left 

 for twelve hours or more, and then spread on a floor and mixed with 

 as much quicklime as will absorb the moisture, and allow it to be 

 sown or drilled, without the grams adhering to one another. 



In the second volume of the ' Journal of the Royal Society of Agri- 

 culture of England,' Part I., is a valuable paper, by the Ilev. T. S. 

 Henslow, on the diseases of wheat. He describes the different fungi 

 which produce the various diseases of pepper-brand, dust-brand, rust, 

 and mildew. The ergot in wheat is an excrescence from the ear, like a 

 small horn, into which the seed is transformed. It has a poisonous 

 quality and a medicinal one. The cause of this monstrosity in the 

 seed is not fully known. It is supposed to be caused by the puncture 

 of some insect, introducing a virus which lias entirely altered the 

 functions of the germ, and made it produce this ergot, instead of a 



