329 



SKEWING. 



BREWING. 



330 



In earlier times the designations of this service-book had been 

 ' Horse Canonicse,' ' Opus Dei,' ' Divinum^Officium,' ' Collecta,' 'Agenda/ 

 ' Cursus,' &c. (Grancolas, ut supr.) 



The Breviary originally contained only the Lord's Prayer and 

 Psalms, to which were subsequently added lessons from the Scrip- 

 tures. Various additions were afterwards made by the popes Damasus, 

 Leo, Gelasius, Gregory the Great, Adrian I., Gregory III., and 

 Gregory VII. ; and in the progress of time, in compliance with the 

 superstition of the day, the legendary lives of the saints were inserted, 

 full of ill-attested and improbable facts. This gave occasion to many 

 revisions and reformations of the Roman Breviary, particularly in the 

 councils of Trent and Cologne, by popes Gregory IX., Nicholas III., 

 Clement VII., Paul III., and Paul IV. ; as likewise by some cardinals, 

 and especially by Cardinal Quignon, who carried the reformation of it 

 the farthest. 



An additional reason for reforming the Breviary was found in the 

 circumstance that different churches and orders of religious had their 

 several offices, varying from each other, but still under the same name. 

 Grancolas has separate chapters, de Ecclesiarum Orientalium Breviario 

 Distributio Omcii apud Graecos de veterum Occidentis Ecclesiarum, 

 pnecipue vero Mediolanensis Breviario de Breviario Ecclesiarum His- 

 paniae Vetus Ecclesis Anglicanae et Germanieae Breviarium de veteri 

 Gallise Ecclesiarum Breviario, praecipue vero Parisienais de Breviario 

 Monastico, &c. 



In England we have Breviaries more particularly appropriated to the 

 cathedrals of York and Salisbury : an edition of the former, printed at 

 York in 1526, is mentioned in Cough's ' British Topography ; ' editions 

 of the latter, printed at Paris, occur in 1510 and 1536. The Breviary 

 " in usum Sarum," was the service-book principally followed formerly 

 in the English churches. But the variety of form, as already shown, 

 was not confined to England ; there was scarcely a church in the com- 

 munion of Rome, in France, Flanders, Spain, Germany, &c., which had 

 not something particular, however inconsiderable, in the form and 

 manner of ite Breviary. 



Pope Pius V., who adopted the Breviary as decreed by the council 

 of Trent, ordered all former Breviaries to be laid aside, by his rescript 

 dated at Rome 7 id. July, 1568, whether made by bishops, orders of 

 monks, or monasteries. Clement VIII., in another rescript dated 10th 

 Stay, 1602, recognised Pius V.'s abolition of the Breviaries as used in 

 different churches according to their particular forms of service, and 

 confirmed the Breviary as fixed in 1568. Urban VIII. again confirmed 

 it under a new revision 25th January, 1631. This last revision, by 

 which the work was brought nearer to the simplicity of the primitive 

 offices, is at present the Breviary of the Romish Church in general use. 

 It was published in 1697, under the direction of Ferdinand de Bergem, 

 bishop of Antwerp, entitled ' Breviarium Romanum, ex decreto Sacro- 

 sancti Concilii Trideutini restitutum, Pii V. Pout. Max. jussu editum 

 et dementis VIII. primum, nunc denuo Urbaui PP. VIIL autoritate 

 recognitum,' foL Antw. 1697. 



The obligation of reading the Breviary every day, which at first was 

 universal, was by degrees limited to the beneficed clergy alone, who are 

 bound to do it on pain of being guilty of mortal sin, and of refunding 

 their revenues in proportion to their delinquencies in discharging this 

 duty. Some of the monastic orders have, with the consent of the 

 pope, their peculiar Breviaries, but they contain no essential variations. 

 In addition to Grancolas's work already quoted, and the rescripts pre- 

 fixed to the Breviarium of 1697, the reader may consult Koecherid's 

 ' Bibliotheca Theologise Symbolicac et Catecheticse, itemque Liturgica,' 

 8vo, Guelpherb.,' 1751, pp. 747-768, where he will find a critical account 

 of the editions of the Breviarium since 1549. 



BREWING consists in the process of extracting a saccharine solu- 

 tion from grain, and in converting that solution into a fermented 

 beverage called beer or ale. This art, although a perfectly chemical 

 one in nearly all its stages, has not until very lately been indebted to 

 chemistry for any of the improvements which have been made in its 

 details ; this we may attribute to the rare occurrence of a practical 

 chemist being engaged in the operation of brewing. The great brewers ; 

 however, have lately made improvements in this matter. 



This art is of great antiquity ; for we find that the Germans, in the 

 time of Tacitus, manufactured an intoxicating beverage from wheat 

 and barley ; and Herodotus (ii. 77), five centuries earlier, says that the 

 Egyptians made a drink of barley. The Saxons also had various drinks 

 of the lame claw ; some made from grain, as mum ; others from honey 

 as methetjlm ; but in Germany, in particular, they were early famec 

 for their beer and ale. The towns of Liibeck and Rostock stood fore 

 moot in the list for their double beer or Brunswick mum, as it was 

 caljed, at which places it was manufactured to an enormous extent 

 the latter town exporting, about the end of the 16th century, as much 

 as 800,000 barrels. Heavy duties were, however, levied in this country 

 on these imports, amounting at last, in the beginning of the reign o 

 Queen Anne, to the enormous sum of 15. per barrel. This heavi 

 impost, together with the improvement in the breweries of this 

 country, soon put a stop to the introduction of this article. Within 

 the last half-century the manufacture of beer and ale has increased to 

 an amazing extent both in England and in Ireland. 



The process usually followed by the brewer of the present day ma; 

 be divided into eight distinct parta, independent of the malting 

 namely, first, the yrindiny of the malt; secondly, the operation o 



mashing ; thirdly, the boiling ; fourthly, the cooling ; fifthly, the 

 'ermentation ; sixthly, the cleansing ; seventhly, the racking or vatting ; 

 and eighthly, the fining or clearing. In considering these various sub- 

 ects, it will be better first to go over the processes in their order, and 

 hen return to the particulars of the principal processes, as respects 

 .he heat and precautionary details, &c. In brewing the various beers, 

 is ale, porter, and table-beer, three distinct kinds of malt are employed ; 

 he pale and amber malts, the brown or blown malt, and the roasted 

 or black malt. The first of these alone is used for ales ; and for the 

 iner qualities or higher priced, the malt is dried very pale indeed. 

 This first quality of grain gives the saccharine extract ; the second, or 

 >lown malt, gives the flavour to porters and stouts ; and the last 

 variety is used only as a colouring matter. The roasted malt is also 

 sometimes called patent malt. [MALT.] 



The gram being selected, it is ground either by millstones, or by 

 allowing the malt to pass between two cylindrical iron rollers, placed 

 lorizontally at a certain distance from each other, with the space 

 Between them regulated by adjusting screws according to the size of 

 ;he grist; required. Many brewers prefer a fine grist (as the crushed 

 malt is called) ; while others, on the contrary, consider that a greater 

 extract can be obtained from a coarse one. Some use the millstones 

 in* preference to the rollers ; others like the rollers best ; others again 

 employ both. In the last-named ease, the brewer uses a circular sieve 

 called a separator, through which the grist passes from the millstones ; 

 and only the grains that may have escaped this operation are carried 

 to the rollers to be crushed. 



The grist being thus prepared is now ready for the process of 

 mashing. The mash-tun is usually of wood, varying in size according 

 to the quantity of malt to be wetted, and having two or more holes 

 called taps in the bottom. From one to two inches above this bottom 

 is a false bottom pierced full of small holes, on which the ground malt 

 is placed ; the hot water is then admitted, and the grist is intimately 

 mixed with the water. For this purpose it is either worked by 

 machinery consisting of a horizontal axle supplied with vertical arms 

 around its circumference, and these again having comb-like projections, 

 the whole of which is made to traverse round the tun ; or the yoods 

 (as the malt is now technically called) is worked up by means of 

 instruments termed mashing oars, so as to cause the whole to assume 



perfectly homogeneous consistence. This being completed, the 

 whole is allowed to stand at rest for a certain time ; the taps are then 

 opened at the bottom of the mash tun, and the infusion or sweet wort 

 is allowed to run off into a vessel called the underback, from whence it 

 ia pumped or otherwise conveyed to the copper for boiling. When the 

 taps are spent they are closed, and a fresh quantity of hot water is run 

 on for a second mash. Brewing coppers for small breweries are gene- 

 rally open ; but in the large establishments dome coppers are employed, 

 and on the dome of the copper a vessel is constructed called a pau, by 

 which both time and fuel are materially economised; cold wort or 

 water is placed in this vessel at the same time that the boiling is going 

 on in the closed copper below, the steam from which is also driven into 

 the pan, so that in the course of the time required for the wort to boil, 

 the fluid in the pan is raised to the boiling temperature also. When 

 the whole of the worts are pumped into the copper the hops are thrown 

 in, and the boiling then commences. Large coppers are supplied with 

 an apparatus called a rouser, consisting of a vertical rod of iron extend- 

 ing to the bottom of the copper, with chains pending from the hori- 

 zontal arms which branch off from it, and which are dragged round the 

 bottom by machinery so as to prevent the hops from settling down 

 and burning. When the boiling is complete, the whole contents of 

 the copper are turned into the hop back or jack back, which is a large 

 vessel, having a false bottom for large brewings, and a sieve partition 

 at the corners for small ones. 



As the boiled worts drain from the hops, they are allowed to run 

 into or are pumped into the coolers. These hops, when sufficiently 

 drained, may be again boiled with a second copper of wort, or with 

 the return wort or table-beer. The coolers are large shallow vessels, 

 placed in as open a part of the brewery as possible, so as to command 

 a free current of air over the whole of their surface : they may be 

 constructed of either wood or iron. The latter possesses many advan- 

 tages from its cleanliness, and the exposure of a large radiating surface 

 to assist the cooling. Fans and blowers are sometimes used to assist 

 the rapidity of this part of the process. The fans are placed in the 

 middle of the cooler and whirl round, producing a considerable move- 

 ment and current. The blower consists of a light iron paddle-wheel 

 working within a box closed at all parts, except round the axle of the 

 wheel, at which the cold air enters, and at the opening of the wooden 

 pipe through which it is expelled. When sufficiently cool, the worts 

 are allowed to run into the fermenting tun. As great injury may arise 

 from the worts remaining too long in the coolers, more particularly in 

 summer, it becomes necessary to employ artificial means of cooling by 

 refrigerators, the principle of which is this : a current of cold water 

 flows through a main in one direction, while the hot wort is made to 

 traverse in the opposite, either in an inclosed pipe within the liquor 

 main, or around the exterior of the cooling surface ; the water becomes 

 warm by cooling the wort. 



The next operation, that of fermentation, is carried on in a vessel 

 called a gyle, or fermenting tun, which is either of a square or round 

 the latter is preferable on account of the superior cleanliness. 



