. 



\K WOOD. OIL i'K. 





. : 



.turgeou. The greater part of the caviar is prepared near the mouths 

 of the Volga, and also at the mouths of the Danube, Dnieper, and 

 Don. In the month of March, the sturgeon arrives in great numbers 

 for spawning at these places. The ovarU of the largest of these fish 

 are estimated to contain 3,000,000 of eggs. The fish are caught both 

 with neU and with hooka. Caviar is prepared by removing from the 

 roe all its membranes ; it is then washed iu vinegar or white wine, and 

 dried by being spread on a board in the air. After this, it is thoroughly 

 salted, the salt being rubbed in with the haud ; it is then put into a 

 bag and prcasod in order to remove the liquor ; finally it is packed in 

 kegs, and is than ready for sale. The caviar made on the shores of 

 the Caspian is for the most part sent up the Volga to Moscow ; that 

 shipped from the ports of the Black Sea and Sea of Azof U bought at 

 Astrakhan by the Armenians of NakhiU-hivau and the Greeks of 

 Taganrog. This caviar is not so good as that which is made on the 

 Caspian. The principal exports are to Italy ; very little is brought to 

 England. The shipments altogether form only a small part of what is 

 made, the consumption in Russia being very great in consequence of 

 the three seasons of fasting which occur in the year. There has been 

 known to be as much as 1000 cwts. of caviar shipped from Odessa in 

 single year; but this is far beneath the produce of the Caspian, 

 which has in some years reached 15,000 cwta. When of good quality, 

 caviar is dry and of a brown colour; it is commonly eaten with oil 

 and lemon- juice. A cheaper and less prized kind is obtained from the 

 roe of the gray mullet, and from some species of carp, which are 

 common in and near the Black Sea. 



Although not known by the name of caviar, there are several other 

 articles of food similarly made from the roe of fish. One is called 

 lotaryo, made on the coasts of the Mediterranean from the spawn of a 

 species of mullet, especially at Tunis, and in Sicily, it is prepared 

 nearly in the same way as caviar. In the islands of the Indian Archi- 

 pelago, a considerable trade is maintained in the roe of a large species 

 of chad or shad, found in the rivers of Sumatra. Some of the American 

 Indians gather herring- roe as an article of food ; at certain seasons 

 of the year they sink cedar-branches to the bottom of a shallow river 

 by means of heavy stones, and by the next morning the green foliage 

 of the branches is found to be covered with herring-spawn; the 

 Indian* wash this off into a water-proof basket, squeeze it by the hand 

 into little balls, dry it, and eat it as a very palatable food. Mr. Sim- 

 moods thus describes the mode adopted by the Spaniards of Central 

 America in curing the roe of the callipera fish. " They first rub the 

 roe well with salt and a little nitre, then they put a number of them 

 one upon another, and compress them by means of a heavy weight. 

 After this they build up a sort of stove of green boughs, covering the 

 top with green branches intersecting each other. The inside being 

 filled with straw and fresh leaves, they ignite these, place the roes on 

 the top, and cover them well up with green boughs. The roes are 

 allowed to remain six or seven days in this state, during which time 

 the fire keeps smouldering and sending up a thick smoke ; this smoke 

 is concentrated on the roes by the upper layer of branches. The 

 membraneous covering of the roe is not taken off; and thus, the air 

 Hsinfl excluded, the roe will remain good for a long time. When the 

 roe is to be eaten it is cut in very thin slices ; the outer coating is 

 even then not taken off, but is rubbed clean with a dry cloth." 



CEDAR- WOOD, OIL OF. The essential oil of cedar-wood contains 

 otdnle, a crystalline solid, of the formula C n H u O., dissolved in a 

 liquid hydrocarbon termed etdrent, and having the formula C,,H . 



CEDRENE. [CiDAB-wooD, On or.) 



CEDRIRET, one of the products of the distillation of coal tar dis- 

 covered by Reicbenbach. It is a volatile solid, and is obtained from 

 creosote by the action of potash snd acetic acid. It crystallises in a 

 solution of sulphate of iron, forming orange-red crystals, which dis- 

 solve with a blue colour in sulphuric acid. The colour of oil of tar 

 aasms to be owing to this substance. 



CEDROLE. [CEDAR-WOOD, OIL or.] 



CELERY, or APIUM ORATEOLENS, is a wild umbelliferous 

 plant by no means uncommon in the marshes of England, cs]K-cially 

 near the sea; in the isle of Thanct it is abundant. In its native 

 station it has the character of being a poisonous plant, but transplanted 

 to a garden it becomes an agreeable and wholesome vegetable. This 

 is in conformity with the general properties of umbelliferous plants, in 

 which two principles, the aromatic and the narcotic exist, and which 

 are food or poison as the one or the other predominates. The narcotic 

 U generated abundantly in moist places, and the aromatic principally 

 hi dry situation* ; and hence plants that are dangerous while growing 

 in marshes, become wholesome when transferred to dry places. This 

 appears to be one cause of the difference between the wild and the 

 onltirsted celery; another is, that the latter is blanched before it is 

 fcrooght to table, and thus the secretion of its deleterious principles is 



| '< ' ' ! 



Of garden celery there are many varieties; the best of which for 

 tad is the Turkish, and for stowing, the Celeriac or the turnip-rooted 

 sort For soups, the "seeds" may be employed with as much advan- 

 tage as the stems or leaves. 



Catojis rawed in beds, from soed sown from the eud of March to 



IUJli.i.ing of May, and requires a light, rich, well-drained soil 



J** **?*) "> *" *ed-bed are about two or three inches high, 



tftsy are pricked out into another bed, where they remain till they are 



six or seven inches high ; they are then transferred to benches, in 

 which they are placed in a row, and finally left. As they advai 

 sixe, they are gradually and carefully earthed up, till at K-t the whole 

 length of the stem under ground is sometimes .as much as four feet. 

 The goodness of celery depends essentially ii|mn itn growing rapidly, 

 being kept well drained from moisture, and having a solid stalk to its 

 leaves. Celeriac is not earthed up, but is grown M|K>II the surface of 

 the ground, and kept free from weeds and preserved irom the eniisaion 

 of strong lateral roots by frequent hoeing. 



i KUXnNKS. oltDKlt OK, a monastic order, instituted about 

 1254 by 1'ietro da Morrone, afterwards Pope Celeatine V., : 

 they took the name of Celestines. Their first convent was at Mr 

 in the Apennines of Abruzzo.. It was a reform of the order 

 Bernard. Urban IV. approved its institution, and Gregory X. granted 

 many privileges, with an exemption from payment of tithes, 4c. U 

 became a very rich order, both in Italy and France. In 177". 

 sequence of an order from Louis XV., the Celestines of France held a 

 cnpitulum, or general assembly, from the various houses they had in 

 that country, to consider of several reforms in their discipline and 

 economy, which were insisted upon by the king. These however they 

 refused to adopt, and preferred the secularisation or suppression of 

 their order, which was ultimately effected by Pius VI. in 1776-$. 

 Their property was taken possession of by royal commissioners, a 

 suitable pension being allowed to each monk. Some years after, 

 Ferdinand IV. of Naples suppressed the (.'destine convents in bin 

 kingdom. 



CELLA. [TEMPLE.] 



CELLULOSE (C^.H^O^). The different parts of all plants are 

 built up of little cells or vessels somewhat after the manner of honey- 

 comb, but more varied in shape. The walls of these chambers are 

 universally composed of one substance, called cellulose. Its chemical 

 composition is the same from whatever source obtained ; it may, 

 however, differ considerably in appearance and physical character. 

 Thus in the hard shells and kernels of various fruits, such as the 

 cocoa-nut, peach, or filbert, it ia very dense ; in hay and straw, tena- 

 cious and rigid ; in hemp and flax, elastic ; while in the pith of the 

 rush or elder we have nearly pure cellulose in a spongy condition. It 

 is also found as one of the proximate constituents of inferior amnni-. 

 for example, in the tunics of ascidia and other molluscs. 



Pure cellulose may be obtained from pith, old linen, finely carded 

 cotton, or the better kinds of filtering-paper, by successively treating 

 with boiling water, dilute alkali, chlorine, acetic acid, alcohol, and 

 ether, and drying at a temperature of 212 Fahr. In this state it is a 

 white solid ; semi-transparent, tasteless, and odourless, and insoluble in 

 cold water, alcohol, ether, or the fixed or essential oils. Boiling water 

 very slowly converts it into dextrin. Concentrated sulphuric or 

 phosphoric acid converts it first into dextrin, and, on dilution with 

 water and ebullition, into glucose (grape-sugar). 



When unsized paper is immersed for a few seconds in strong 

 sulphuric acid diluted with half its volume of water, it is converted 

 into an exoeeedingly tough substance resembling parchment. This 

 extraordinary change is entirely molecular, the chemical com]' 

 of the cellulose remaining unaltered. 



Concentrated nitric acid converts cellulose into an exceedingly 

 combustible substance [Qrs-CoTToxJ, in which the elements of nitrous 

 acid (NO,) replace part of the hydrogen in the cellulose. Strong 

 caustic potash or soda causes it gradually to swell and finally dis- 

 integrate. 



When moist cellulose and hydrate of potash, in equal proportions, 

 are heated under slight pressure, hydrogen is evolved, wood-spirit 

 distils, and formate, acetate, and carbonate of potash remain. 



When cellulose is heated to about 400* Fahr. in contact with solid 

 caustic potash, oxalic acid in large quantity is formed. Caustic soda 

 doen not produce the same effect. 



Iodine does not colour cellulose until the latter lias been acted upon 

 with sulphuric aeid, when a fine l.lue is produced. This reaction is of 

 service in microscopical investigations, but prolonged action of the 

 acid should be avoided. 



.\fetliillinr, fuiiyinf, and tubrrtne ore but physical modifications of 

 cellulose. 



CELT, an instrument of stone or bronze, found in tumuli and other 

 primeval earthworks. From being discovered in burial-places, and, 

 among remains usually known as Celtic, these instruments arc fre- 

 quently supposed to have been called edit because of their employment 

 by the Celta; ; but the name appears to have been given to them from 

 an old Latin word, nlltt, a chisel, hi which sense the word is used in 

 the Vulgate (Job xix. 24) and clsov. ! 



The term celt has been somewhat indiscriminately applied to several 

 kinds of cutting instruments : to small hatchets, axes, and cv, n what, 

 appear to be military weapons, as well as to chisels ; but tin- < 

 now restricted to chisels, or small instruments similar in character. 

 Worsaae and some northern antiquaries would, indeed, confine the 

 term to " instruments hollowed out to receive a wooden handle : " but in 

 this he is not followed by English authorities. The most simple forms 

 of stone or flint celts are extremely inartificial. Some have been i 

 chipped away, but most have been subsequently polished. They vjrv 

 a good deal in size, but the common celt is about six inches long, and 

 makes a certain approximation to the form of an incisor tooth ; some 



