CHEMISTRY. 



CHEMISTRY. 



600 



the number of observations increased, and various singular changes and 

 transmutations were effected by the contact of different substance*, 

 the complete alteration in physical propertiei produced by chemical 

 action attracted attention, and no doubt first led to the belief that all 

 form* of matter were mutually convertible into each other, and hence 

 that iron, lead, tin, copper, Ac., could be transmuted into gold. 



Whether thin idea originated with the Egyptian Greeks or the 

 Arabians is uncertain; but its promulgation attracted a host of 

 adventurers to the prosecution of chemical experimenta, who, instead 

 of being disheartened by the continual failure of their processes, 

 seemed only to be incited to greater activity by the difficulties met 

 with in the solution of this important problem, which will probably 

 never be proved to be an impossible one. The origin of experimental 

 chemistry cannot be referred to a more remote period than the seventh, 

 or eighth century of the Christian era, and the early nomenclature 

 Minns to indicate that the Arabians were the most active in its pro- 

 secution ; for instance, the words alcohol, aludel, alembic, and alcali, 

 are evidently Arabic. 



The history of the middle ages furnishes us with many narrations 

 about the transmutations of metals, and the processes and manipula- 

 tions by which the impostors or dupes pretended to perform them. 

 The alchemists as these men were called had three principal objects 

 of pursuit, namely, the philosopher's stone, possessing the property of 

 transforming the baser metals into gold, the universal elixir to cure 

 all diseases and confer immortality, and the universal solvent. The 

 first of these objects was the most eagerly sought after, and it appears 

 almost incredible to us, how large a number of persons became the 

 dupes of the impostors professing to be possessed of the golden secret, 

 since the mere fact of demanding remuneration for its disclosure, by 

 the men who could produce gold in any quantity at pleasure, was a 

 sufficient proof of the dishonesty of their pretensions. Contemporary 

 with these impostors there lived, however, a large number of honest 

 inquirere, who, although stimulated in their researches by a love of 

 gain, were yet conscientious in their experimenta and indefatigable in 

 their exertions ; to these men the science is incalculably indebted for 

 the accumulation of an immense number of facts, which being isolated, 

 and at that time comparatively uninteresting, would probably have 

 long remained unknown, had not the golden dream of alchemy lent a 

 charm to research, and stimulated these pioneers in the prosecution of 

 their laborious and frequently dangerous experiments. 



Though the new substances procured were at first thrown aside, as 

 unworthy of attention, by the disciples of alchemy, yet the methods 

 of preparation were generally preserved, and soon many of them 

 began to receive important applications in medicine and the arts. 

 Thus the importance of chemical inquiry and experiment, pent, began 

 to be appreciated, and at the commencement of the seventh century, 

 men of talent and ability devoted themselves to the study of these 

 curious transformations and interesting phenomena. To Lord Bacon, 

 however, chemistry is largely indebted, for perfectly freeing it from the 

 trammels of alchemy which still pertinaciously hung upon it, hindi-rin^ 

 its development and stunting its growth : he happily described the 

 alchemists as similar to those husbandmen who, in searching for a 

 treasure supposed to be hidden in their land, by turning up and pul- 

 verising the soil, rendered it fertile, in seeking for brilliant impos- 

 sibilities, they sometimes discovered useful realities ; and referring to 

 the chemistry of his tune, he says, a new philosophy has arisen from 

 the furnaces, which has confounded all the reasoning of the ancient*. 

 He first pointed out the value of experiment and observation over the 

 iinnTriftH human powers, and founded a new system of philosophical 

 inquiry, by showing how little could be effected in the interpretation 

 of natural phenomena, even by the strongest intellects, when un- 

 assisted by experimental research. Man, as the servant and inter- 

 preter of nature, can only discover her sublime truths by close obser- 

 vation and imitation of her operations. 



The knowledge possessed of this science before the time of Constan- 

 tino has been thus summed up by Bergman : " Some general idea may 

 be formed of the state of chemistry in those days, from the con- 

 sideration of the several subjects of the art with which they seem to 

 have had no acquaintance. Except the acetic, no trace can be dis- 

 covered of any other acid. The mineral alkali (carbonate of soda) was 

 known to them by the name of nitre ; but of the vegetable alkali 

 (potash) they knew little ; of the volatile (ammonia) they were alto- 

 gether ignorant. Of neutral salts they had the marine (common salt), 

 and the ammoniac (chloride of ammonium). Of earthy salts, they had 

 native alum only ; and of metallic salto, blue copperas and native 

 green vitriol." 



Of earths, they seem to have distinguished the calcareous and 

 argillaceous ; and of stones, a very considerable number. 



Of inflammable substances, they were acquainted with sulphur, 

 (ixuussud oils, and oils distilled per rfoemram. But they knew no 

 other method of extracting the essential oils than by means of the 

 unctuous. We find no account whatever of spirit of wine or ether. 



Of the seven perfect metals hitherto known, they were acquainted 

 with all but platinum ; but they were ignorant of the imperfect. Some 

 author*, indeed, make a distinction between tin and white lend, which 

 was perhaps zinc, bismuth, or regulus of antimony. l'it it i- |HI[H. 

 . draw any certain cnncliif>ioti with nii-<-t t. thi<- ; uhi-n even 

 I 'liny Histtngnishrs between hydrargyrum and argentum virum. 



Expressions, digestions, and decoctions, were almost the only opera- 

 tions in their chemistry. Perhaps indeed they used some varieties of 

 elixation, evaporation, and iuspissation ; as likewise of crystallisation, 

 sublimation,' calcination, distillation per JrtctHtum, fusion, li<, 

 vitrification, and fermentation. From the authorities, therefore, 

 aleady cited, continues Bergman, " it may be naturally inferred, that at 

 the period under consideration the dawn only of chemistry had made 

 its appearance ; and that it was rather a collection of unconnected and 

 ill-founded axioms, the result of observation and than a 



science established upon the broad basis of an infinite vat 

 rimente. At this time they were in want also of the pro]>er instru- 

 ments, and unacquainted with the necessary steps by which tin- 

 principles of natural bodies can be exactly separated, collected, and 

 pr.'i>orly defined. They were, therefore, without those -means so 

 necessary to the evolution of truth, and the construction of a genuine 

 system." ' Physical and chemical Essays,' vol. iii. p. 91. 



From the 7th to the 17th century, or what Bergman terms the 

 middle age, many important facts were discovered, and seven 1 products 

 were added to the meagre list which has been given. We shall now 

 notice the various new preparations, which include some mo.-t im- 

 portant instruments of analysis. It has been mentioned that up to 

 the present period, the acetic acid was the only one known; but 

 several new acids were now added. Basil Valentine described the 

 process for making what he calls oleum vitrioli, a naiuu by which it is 

 commonly yet known, though more correctly called sulphur: < 

 from green vitriol, or sulphate of iron ; and Dorrucus describes ai, 

 process for preparing the same acid, which, on account of the form of 

 the vessel used in making it, was called oleum siilplniris per cam- 

 panurn. Nitric acid was obtained by Raymond Lully from nitre ; his 

 process waa much improved by Glauber, who employed, as at the 

 present time, sulphuric acid to decompose the nitre ; by this he pro- 

 duced the acidum nitri finnans, or Glauber's spirit of nitre; from 

 common salt the same chemist procured [by means of Milplun 

 the spiritus salis Glauber!, since called marine, muriatic, or hydro. 

 chloric acid. Aqua regia was prepared by Hollandus by distilling 

 a mixture of nitre and brine with sulphuric acid; this fluid wax 

 so named on account of its power of dissolving gold, the king of 



!IM tal*. 



Several salts and some alkaline bodies were also discovered, or 

 became more perfectly known, during this period. Geber describes 

 the process of rendering the alkali of tartar (carbonate of potash) 

 caustic by means of lime ; he takes some notice also of the carbonate 

 of soda, and he mentions borax. Glauber described the salt which yet 

 bears his name, the sal mirabile Glauberi, or sulphate of soda ; he 

 described also what he terms sal secretus, which is sulphate of am- 

 monia. Raymond Lully added some important observations : he 

 mentions the deliquescent property of potash, and the ]<: 

 the volatile alkali, or ammonia, by putrefaction ; and Basil Vn: 

 notices its evolution from sal ammoniac by the fixed al Italian, 



To Crollius chemistry is indebted for the preparation, or at any rate 

 for the description, of several saline substances : thus he term* the 

 salt obtained by saturating vitriolic acid withjthc alkali of tartar, tarta- 

 rus vitriolatus, a name not yet quite extinct ; but he does not appear 

 to have been aware that this salt, when obtained by other processes, 

 was similar in its nature. Crollius also mentions the salt or arid f 

 amber ; and Bartholetus, sugar of milk. The digestive salt of Sylvius 

 was also discovered by the chemist whose name it bears : it ha 

 been named muriate of potash : its present appellation in chloride of 

 potassium. 



Of the earths in general but little was known, anil even that little, 

 Bergman remarks, was unsupported by the principles of chemistry ; 

 clay was distinguished from sand, but not by its genuine cli 

 eharacters. Except alum, few earthy salts were known. Hollaudus 

 describes chloride of calcium under the name of sal ammonia: fixus. 



Among the metals, antimony was described by Basil Valentine in 

 1490 ; bismuth by Agricola in 1530; and zinc by Paracelsus also in 

 the 16th century. Bergman says that Schroeder describes the process 

 of reducing arsenic hi his Pharmacopeia of 1649 ; but Brandt first 

 examined it with considerable accuracy in 1733. Many m< t.illic salts 

 were known and examined in this period. Nitrate of silver was called 

 magisterium argenti, vel chrystalh' Diana: ; when fused it was, as now, 

 used as a caustic, and was called by Angelo Sala, lapix inteim!!-. 

 CrolliuK gave the appellation of luna cornua to chloride of silver; he 

 mentions also mercunus dulcis, or calomel. The binoxide of mercury 

 prepared by nitric acid, he calls Arcanum Coralliuiiin I'ar.u-elrii ; 

 acetate of, tin, sal Jovis; and oxide of antimony, antimom'um dia- 

 phoreticum. 



Basil Valentine gives an account of acetate of lead, under the name 

 of saccharum Saturni, and mentions the butter of antimoi 

 chloride ; and the white precipitate obtained from it by water is called 

 mercurium vita by Paracelsus, and pulvis angelicua by Aljj 

 That important medicine, the tartrate of potash and antimony, was 

 first used by Mynsicht, and called tartaruni emeticum. Basil Valen- 

 tine and Paracelsus observed, that chloride of ammonium combined 

 and sublimed with some metallic oxides, producing in the case of iron 

 a coin]i<miid originally called floras niartiales. It lias been already 

 .that the i-iilpliaU-H of iron and . op|,cr \\en- klmnn l.yllie 



name* of green and blue vitriol, and their nature was underst" 



