CHKONOLOOT. 



CHRONOMETER. 



Among modern systems of chronology, ono of the most remarkable 

 and peculiar ia that proposed by Sir Isaac Newton, in his posthumous 

 work, ' the Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended,' 4to, London, 

 .v ton, iiMumiug the nearly entire valuelessness of the deter- 

 minations of the dates of ancient events by the Greek chrouolo. 

 their follower*, proceeds to form a new system on considerations 

 wholly independent of their authority. In the first place he has 

 endeavoured to show that the ancient historians, when " a little after 

 the death of Alexander the Great, they began to sot down the gene- 

 rations, reigns, and successions, in numbers of years, by putting reigns 

 and successions equipollent to generations, and three generations to 100 

 1 years (as appears by their chronology), have made the antiquities 

 of tireece 300 or 400 years older than the truth." He contends that 

 the reign* of kings, on an average, do not exceed eighteen or twenty 

 years. Secondly, he has endeavoured to ascertain the date of the 

 famous Argonautic expedition by an ingenious calculation founded 

 upon the known precession of the equinoxes at the rate of a degree, in 

 seventy-two years (properly a degree is about 714 years), and the 

 gumption of the equinoxiol and solstitial eolurcs having at the time 

 of the expedition cut the ecliptic in the cardinal points. From these 

 data he determines the expedition to have taken place about the year 

 928 B.C., which gives an antiquity less by about three centuries than 

 that commonly assigned to the event. But the grounds on which 

 Newton had assumed the position of the colures st the time of the 

 expedition are now generally acknowledged to be quite insufficient. 

 Although the full exposition of this system was not published till after 

 ith of the author, its general principles got abroad during his 

 lifetime, and were attacked from various quarters. The two chief 

 early assailants of the Newtonian chronology were the learned French 

 Jesuit Souciet, and Nicolas Freret, known for his many valuable con- 

 tributions to the memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions. In latter 

 times the system has been examined by Playfair (pp. 35 -37), and by 

 Hales* (voL i., pp. 26-29). See also Sir David firewater's ' Life of 

 Newton,' and a valuable note by M. Daunon to the article on Newton 

 by Biot in the ' Biographic Universelle,' vol. xxxi., pp. 180-186. 

 Clinton denies that the general uncertainty of the early Greek chro- 

 nology is BO great as is supposed by the scheme of Newton. 



Although Newton's deduction of the date of the Argonautic expe- 

 dition from the precession of the equinoxes cannot be depended on, 

 owing to the want of any authority for the position of the colures at 

 the time of the expedition, the science of astronomy has in another 

 way rendered valuable assistance to that of chronology. This it has 

 done by the means which it affords of ascertaining the exact date of 

 many eclipses of the sun and moon which are recorded by ancient 

 writers, and are sometimes connected by them with historical events 

 that happened at or near the same time. In the first volume of the 

 great French work, ' L'Art de Verifier les Dates ' (pp. 146-265), are 

 given lists of all the eclipses of the sun and moon which could have 

 been seen to the north of the equator for ten centuries preceding the 

 birth of Christ ; and secondly, of all those recorded before that epoch 

 by ancient writers. In a subsequent volume of the same work there is 

 inserted a list of the visible eclipses that have happened since the com- 

 mencement of the vulgar tera. Lists of eclipses, solar and lunar, are 

 also given in PUvfair's ' Chronology,' pp. 176-219. As an example of 

 the astronomical examination of a recorded ancient eclipse, see the 

 article ALYATTEK, in Bioo. Div. 



One of the earliest of the Christian systematic chronologers is Sextus 

 Julius Africanus, who appears to have flourished in the first half of the 

 3rd century. Of his chronological work, entitled ' Pentabiblos,' how- 

 ever, beginning with the creation, which he dated B.C. 6499, and ending 

 with A.D. 221, only some fragments remain. [AFHICANUS, Bioo. 

 Div.] The most iinjrartant of the works of the early Christian chro- 

 nologers which we now possess is the Chronicon of Eusebius I'.uuphili, 

 bishop of Cmarea, in the 4th century, of which an edition was pub- 

 lished with notes by Joseph Scaliger in 1658, in one volume folio, 

 containing the Latin translation by St. Jerome, and ScaUger's attempted 

 restoration of the lost Greek text The Armenian version of the 

 Chronicon of Eusebius, which is more complete than the previous 

 editions, was published at Venice in 1818, with a literal Latin trans- 

 lation, and another Latin translation of it, in the same year, at Milan. 

 There is a famous Spanish commentary upon the Chronicle of Eusebius, 

 by Alfonso Tostato, printed at Salamanca, in 5 void, fol., in 15oi 

 work which is to be considered as liaving laid the foundation ..f the 

 modem science of chronology ia that of Joseph Scaligur, ' 1 > Kineii- 

 Utione TMunrum,' first published in folio at Paris in 1683, and after- 

 ward*, much augmented and amended, at Leyden in 1598, and at 

 Geneva in IfiiP. Another important work of that age is tli.it of 

 Dionywu* Petavius, or Petau, 'De Doctrina Temporum,' '2 vols. fol., 

 . with the Continuation in 1 vol. fol., Paris, }<::',, ..milled 

 I'ranologion, mve System* variorum nnctoruin qui de Sphrcra ac 

 >i. Ac., comuientati sunt.' An abridgment of this work, under 

 the title of ' Kationsrium Tcmporum,' was published at Paris in 8vo, 

 in 1680, and has been several tunes reprinted. Of other early Conti- 

 nenul works on chronology, the following are some of the most 

 valuable, or the most celebrated : Sethi Calvisii, ' Opus Chronologi- 

 cum,' Lei|m. 1603, often reprinted ; J. Bapt. Kiccioli. ' CUronologia 

 KcformaU,' 2 v.,U. fol., lloimn. Irtr.ii : L'Anti.pijt.: des Terns re'tablie 

 W le Pi re Paul Pczron, Paris, 4to, 1687, and the Defence 



of that w..rk by the author, Paris, 4to, ICl'l ; 1 ' 



'|is de Anno Primitivo ab . Ii ml Annum .In! 



accommodate,' fol., August Viinlel.. 1021, a work for wliii-h tin- ! 

 and unfortunate author v, a- : hut up dun; 

 >n> "i ii,.. Inquisition, his crime 

 opinion that Christ did not celebrate the pa& L 

 life, and, in instituting the Euchai I 

 bread; Philippi Lablw ct Philipi'. 

 .". vols. fol., Paris, 1670; ' Chronologic de 1 1 ! 



iioli-K, '2 vols. 4t<>. Berlin, 1738. Th.- v.oikofth. 

 monks, Maur d'Antine, Duraiid, and Clemend, first published in 1 vol. 

 4to, at Paris, 1760, and which, in the latest cditl 

 M-o. published at Paris, 1818-31, under the title of i;.\ 

 les Dates, ou la suite Chronologique des Ivenemens r. mar M ; 

 la citation du inonde jusqu'en 1828,' has become tin; m 

 and important work on general chronology that exists. T 

 works by English authors upon this science are the ' Chronicus ' 

 yEgyptiacus, Ebraicus, ct Or.ccus/ of Sir John Marsh.un. fol.. London, 

 1672, and also Leipzig, 167fi, and Francfbrt, 1696 ; Archbishop V 

 'Annales Utriusque Testament!,' fol., loud. ]i>5i>, and several time* 

 reprinted ; Sir Isaac Newton's work, already noticed ; Jackson's ' Chro- 

 nological Antiquities.' ;; vols. It", 1752; Blair's ' Chronology and 

 History of the World, from 11 fol., 1754 ; again, 1708, with 



additions ; and in 1857, in post 8vo, with very large additions, !> 

 down to the date of publication, a very useful work, but one that 

 admits of some improvements in the arrangement, the d,-i 

 occurring in any one year being too much scattered ; Kennedy's ' Com- 

 plete System of Astronomical Chronology, unfolding tin 

 4to, 17t>'2 ; Playfair's ' System of Chronology,' fol.. Edin. 17S4 ; and the 

 Rev. Dr. William 11:1 \nalysis of Chronology, in which an 



attempt is made to explain the History and Antiquities of the Primitive 

 Nations of the World, and the Prophecies relating to them,' 3 vol 

 1800-1812. There ia also a useful ihtroduction to chr Bishop 



Beveridge, entitled ' liistitutionum clM..ii>.lorjeann 

 cum totidem Arithuietices Chronologies! Libellis,' 8vo, Loud. 1C' 

 several times reprinted. There are many good works on chronology in 

 foreign languages, among which may In; specially mentioned Ideler's 

 ' Handbuch der mathematischcn und technischcn Chrouologie,' Berlin, 

 1825-26. Particular portions nf aneient chronology have been ably 

 illustrated by Corsini in his ' Fasti Attici, in quibus Aivlioiitum Athe 

 nienaium series, Pliilosophonim, alioruiuquo Ulustrium virorum 

 ttque prajcipua Attica.' Hi-tori;c capita, describuntur,' I vols. 4to, Flor. 

 1744-61 ; by Wesseling, in his edition of l)i,l -J vol.-i. fo(.. 



Amster. 1746 ; by Dodwell, in his ' Annales Thucydldei ct Xenoph 

 4to, Oxford, 1702; and by Lareher, in his ' Kssai de Chronokii 

 HeYodote,' already mentioned. But in so far as the (ink clir<-: 

 is concerned, the most comprehensive, elaborate, and valuable work 

 that has appeared is that of Mr. H. K.< Imton, entitle.) I-'a.-ti Hellenic!: 

 the Civil and Literary Chronology of Greece, fiom tin earliest account* 

 to the death of Augustus," in 3 vols. 4to, of which tli 

 the chronology from the earliest accounts to the time o; 

 was published at Oxford in 1834; the second, comprising the period 

 from Pisistratus to Ptolemy Philadelphus, in 1824; and the third, 

 completing the review to the end of the reign of Augustus, in 1 



The volumes of chronological tables that nave appeared are too many 

 to be enumerated. Several of the systematic works on chronology that 

 have been mentioned contain collections of such tables. The >nl y < it li"i 

 work which we shall mention is a most useful and, as far as w 

 examined it, very accurate publication, in one small volume, by Sir 

 Harris Nicolas, entitled 'The Chronology of History,' which originally 

 formed one of the volumes of Dr. Lardncr's ' Cabinet Cyclopedia.' 



[See the articles JEtiA, Ki'vcT, KI-CKII, ('MM:, l).n, MONTH, ' i . 

 IXUICTION, &c.l 



CHRONOMETER. [HOROLOGY.] 



CHRONOMETER, in instrument by which the 



ment, or time (that is, the quickness or slowness) of a composition i- 

 determined. 



The musical chronometer is by no means a modem contrivan 

 far Imck as the year 1686 Mcrsenn, it. in 



his ' Harmonic Univeraelle ' ; and Malcolm, a sensible writer, urged its 

 use more than a century ago. Yet, owing to the prejudices of musi- 

 cians, it has till lately i mploycd. although its utility l,i 

 been generally admitted. Hi. Crotch, an 

 advocated the use of a pendulum. The opponeo 

 presume that it is 1 1 - n the mote of a compi 

 and that thus i h' be ml iful effects ol "ii and rcUrdat i 

 to be sacrificed; but those who 1> i tin- employment of a 

 penduhim ncvii i >!.! .iuplat< d its ln'ing used for any other ]- 

 than to indie me to be adopted at the , 

 movement. I'miii the want o t some contrivance by which 

 the intention of composers might have been transmitted, we a, 

 obliged to guess the true movements of the most classical works ; and 

 it is notorious that many corai>ositions of the highest excellence, and 

 among them several of recent date, are frequently performed in times 

 which could not have lcn intended, because by good critics admitted 

 to be exceedingly prejudicial i.. th. ii effect. The invention, by the 



la most accurate and convenient nil 

 \\hieh he calN a Metronome, is beginning to convince musician- of tin; 



