949 



CITIZEN. 



CITRIC ACID. 



960 



citizenship may be acquired by every citizen who can acquire the re- 

 quisite property qualification, with one or two trifling exceptions, such 

 as a Jew or a Roman Catholic being disqualified from becoming 

 Lord Chancellor. It follows from what has been said that those 

 who happen to be under this disability are not full citizens, but 

 have a capacity to become such. Those who have not the suffrage are 

 in the situation of subjects to that sovereign body, of which those who 

 possess the suffrage form a part. Thus the word subject may apply to 

 some persons who live in a republic, as it does apply to all who live under 

 a monarchy. The terms on which foreigners are admitted to the citizen- 

 ship, are different in different countries. By the Act of Parliament 

 7 & 8 Viet. c. 76, the acquisition of partial citizenship in England is 

 rendered much easier and less expensive than it was under the former 

 process of a special Act of Parliament. [ALIEN.] 



In ancient Rome, aliens were not always admitted to the full rights 

 of Roman citizens ; and indeed in the early history of the state, even 

 the plebeians formed a body who were without many of the privileges 

 which the patricians enjoyed. A person might receive the Roman 

 citizenship so far as to enjoy every advantage except a vote at the 

 public elections and access to the honours of the state. This however 

 was not citizenship as understood by Aristotle, nor is it citizenship as 

 understood by the free states of modern times. The acquisition of 

 complete citizenship implies the acquisition of a share of the sovereign 

 power : the acquisition of all the rights of a citizen, except the suffrage 

 and access to the honours of the state, is a limited citizenship ; and it 

 is no more than may be acquired in those states where there is no 

 representative body, and in which a man by such acquisition gets not 

 citizenship, but the state gets a subject. 



The great facilities for a man changing his residence which now 

 exist, and the increased motives to such change in a desire to better 

 his condition by permanently settling in another country, lead to 

 emigration from one country to another, and more particularly from 

 Europe to America. The advantage which any country receives from 

 the emigration of those who possess capital or peculiar arts is so great 

 that, under the present circumstances of the world, it is not easy to 

 discover any good reason for republican governments refusing to give 

 the citizenship to any person who comes to another country with the 

 view of settling there. A difficulty will arise in case of war when a 

 man owes a divided allegiance, for it is a principle of English law that 

 a man cannot divest himself of his allegiance to the king of England ; 

 and probably an American citizen cannot divest himself of his alle- 

 giance to the United States. And yet the two countries which main- 

 tain this principle, allow the citizens of any other country to become 

 citizens of their several communities. The Roman,principle under the 

 Republic was, that as soon as a Roman was admitted a citizen of 

 another state, he ceased to be a Roman citizen, because a man could 

 not belong to two states at once ; wherein we have one among many 

 examples of the precision of Roman political principles. The same 

 principle must certainly be adopted some time into the international 

 law of modern states. 



The nations of Europe and the states of the two Americas have all a 

 common religion, which however contains a great number of sects, A 

 person of any religion in the United States of North America may 

 become a citizen, and his opinions are no obstacle to his enjoying any 

 of the honours of the country. But this was not so in England till 

 1858. No man for instance, though an English citizen, could be a 

 member of the House of Commons unless he was, or was willing to 

 profess that he was, a Christian. -The declaration made by mem- 

 bers of the House of Commons, which contained the words " upon the 

 true faith of a Christian," excluded all who did not profess Christianity. 

 In 1858, after several Jews had been elected members and had been 

 prevented from sitting, an Act was passed, by which the House of 

 Commons is enabled, by resolution, to exempt any member from 

 repeating that part of the declaration. 



A great number of foreigners, particularly from Great Britain and 

 Ireland and from some of the German states, annually settle in the 

 United States of North America ; and it is now alleged that by their 

 numbers they materially affect the elections. It is also alleged that 

 many of them are very ignorant, and for want of previous education 

 and proper habits are incompetent to exercise the functions of an 

 American citizen. It is further alleged that a great many of them are 

 Boman Catholics, who are under a. sort of obedience to a foreign prince, 

 the Pone of Rome, and hostile to the principles of the American con- 

 rtitution. For these and other like reasons it has been proposed that 

 a longer term of probation than five years should be required or aliens 

 before they are admitted to the franchise; and a party which calls 

 itself the American Republican party would make the penod of pro- 

 bation twenty-one years. It is admitted m the argument of theu- 

 artvthat if foreigners on settling in the United States are not allowed 

 to have the franchise during the period of probation, they are during 

 that period subjects to the citizens of the United States and not 

 American citizens ; which is consistent with what Aristotle says ( Pol. 

 ii 1) If the period of probation is extended to twenty-one years, 

 the citizens of the United States will have among them a great 

 number of nubjects-a great number of persons who will be as 

 auch their iubjects as the people of Prussia are the subjects of the 

 ine of Prussia. The period of twenty-one years will comprehend 

 the whole life of the great body of immigrants, and this body will be 



very numerous. The immigrants will enjoy no more privileges than 

 aliens can enjoy in most countries of Europe, but they will have before 

 their eyes the daily spectacle of a large number of citizens who do 

 enjoy rights which they do not. Whether all these circumstances will 

 render the government of so large a body of subjects an easier thing 

 to deal with than the difficulties that are alleged to grow out of the 

 present terms on which the citizenship is given, remains to be seen. 

 The declared hostility of the American Republican party to the Roman 

 Catholic religion, the religion of a great number of the immigrants, is 

 calculated to embitter these immigrants still more if they are deprived 

 of the power of attaining the citizenship. The United States already 

 possess a great number of slaves who are subjects, and a large body of 

 free coloured people who are looked upon as a different caste. To 

 these a party now proposes to add a large body of alien subjects, to 

 add to the elements of discord one element more ; and that a more 

 powerful element than all the rest. Undoubtedly, the great amount 

 of immigration into the United States is not a pure advantage to that 

 country, but the call for different terms of naturalisation seems to 

 proceed more from party and religious feeling than to be founded on 

 sober reflection. If we consider the measures proposed, the rea- 

 sons given for them, and the temper with which they are urged, we 

 must agree with the party which urges them, that the American 

 nation has rapidly grown up " without political experience adequate 

 to govern their own mighty physical power." 



In a narrower sense the term citizen is used to denote the freeman 

 or elector of the corporation of a city, as distinguished from a burgher, 

 the elector of a borough. 



CITOLE, a musical instrument mentioned in the ' Confessio Aman- 

 tis ' of Gower, which was, Sir John Hawkins conjectures, a dulcimer. 



CITRACARTIC ACID. [ClTRic ACID, Mcsacanic A cid.] 



CITRACONAMIC ACID (C IO H T N0 ). An acid obtained as an 

 ammoniacal salt, by boiling ritracvnimide with ammonia. Its salts are 

 uuciystallisable. 



CITRACONANILE. [CITRIC GROUP.] 



CITRACONANILIC ACID. [CiTBic GROUP.] 



CITRACONATES. [CITRIC ACID, Citmeoiiic Add.] 



CITRACON-DINITRANILE. [CITRIC GROUP.] 



CITRACONIC ACID. [CITRIC ACID.] 



CITRACONIMIDE. [CITRIC GROUP.] 



CITRACONIODANILE. [CITRIC GROUP.] 



CITRAMIDE. [CITRIC ACID.] 



CITRANILIC ACID. [CITRIC ACID.] 



CITRANILIDE. [CITRIC ACID.] 



CITRATES. [CITRIC ACID.] 



CITREN (C 10 H 6 ). The volatile oil of lemons consists almost en- 

 tirely of a peculiar carburetted hydrogen, to which the name of citren 

 has been given. It is sometimes called citronyl. 



CITRIBIC ACID. [CITRIC Aero.] 



CITRIC ACID (C 12 H 8 U ). This acid, discovered in 1784 by Scheele, 

 in orange juice, exists in the free state, or as acid salt, in the juice of 

 several fruits, as lemons, oranges, cherries, strawberries, red currants, 

 &c., and in the berries of several vegetables ; and to its presence the 

 agreeable acidity of these fruits is due. It is usually prepared from 

 lime-juice, which for this purpose is largely imported from Sicily. In 

 order to obtain the acid, the lime-juice is allowed to stand until it 

 undergoes incipient fermentation, by which certain mucilaginous mat- 

 ters are got rid of, and a clear liquor is obtained. This is neutralised, 

 at first with chalk, and afterwards with caustic lime. An insoluble 

 citrate of lime is hereby formed, which is washed with water, and then 

 decomposed by the addition of a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid. 

 The liquid filtered from the sulphate of lime, and evaporated, yields 

 crystals on cooling. The slight excess of acid promotes the crystalli- 

 sation. 



The acid is present in large quantities in gooseberries, from the 

 expressed juice of which it may be obtained by the above process. 

 The berries should be collected before they are ripe. 



Citric acid crystallises in rhomboidal prisms, which have a strong 

 and agreeable acid taste. It is soluble in alcohol, and more so in water. 

 It is almost insoluble in ether. The crystals obtained by the spon- 

 taneous evaporation of a cold saturated solution, have the formula 

 C 12 H S U , 3HO + 2HO ; those deposited by the cooling of a hot solution 

 have the composition C^HjO,,, 3HO + HO. A dilute aqueous solution 

 becomes mouldy on standing. 



It does not precipitate potash salts, and the presence of tartaric acid, 

 with which it is frequently adulterated, may be detected by adding to 

 a solution of the acid a little acetate of potash ; the formation of a pre- 

 cipitate indicates the presence of tartaric acid. When solution of citric 

 acid is added to lime-water, the liquid remains transparent, but on 

 being heated deposits citrate of lime. This deportment serves to 

 distinguish it from tartaric acid. 



Heated with hydrate of potash, at a temperature of 392 Fahr., it is 

 decomposed, with formation of acetate and oxalate of potash : 



C| 2 H 9 n + 4 R O = 2K . c .5 + 2(KOC,H 3 3 ) + 2HO 



Citric acid. Neutral oxalate Acetate of 



of potaeh. potash. 



Dry citric acid is decomposed, by treating with strong sulphuric acid, 



