II* 



\VK AND CoVVKX. 



CONCKRT. 



150 



MMivn of decimal, we know of DO guide but reason. The ultimate 

 process, the actual atop for the time Ming, must be either addition, 

 subtraction, multiplication, or diviaion ; and accuracy may be acquired 

 mechanically. However desirable it may be that the learner should 

 demonstrate these processes, his power of performing them does not 

 depend upon his being able U. do no. It is otherwise with regard to the 

 new and distinct proceins introduced in questions which require 

 fractions; and which are in nut, not themselves processes, but direc- 

 tions for selection of processes. 



The general run of commercial calculations hardly needs any distinct 

 preliminary exercise. There is one great improvement of which ordi- 

 nary methods are susceptible, namely, the expression of the parts of a 

 pound decimally, instead of by shillings, pence, and farthings. Until 

 a decimal coinage is obtained [STANDARD], any person with a moderate 

 knowledge of decimal fractions may procure fur himself most of its 

 advantages, by the rules which are given in INTEREST, together with 

 what we here subjoin. The demonstration will be easy enough to 

 those who consider the fraction which one farthing is of a pound, 

 00104166666 , or '00104J. 



To write down any fraction of a pound decimally, proceed as 

 follows : 



Pill up the .lint j.lare of decimals with 1 for every pair of shillings ; 

 and the tecond and third placet with 50 for the odd shilling, if any, 

 and 1 for every farthing in the pence and farthings, with an additional 

 1 if these amount to sixpence. Thus, as far as three places of deci- 

 mals, 8*. is '4/., and 9*. U "450/. ; 9. 3</. is '4C2/., 9*. 54<f. U '472A, 9. 6rf. 

 is -47W., 9. 8frf. U -486Z 



Fill up the fourth and fifth plactt with 4 for every farthing above 

 the last sixpence, and an additional 1 for every three halfpence. Thus, 

 as far as five places of decimals, 9. 3d. is 462502., 9>. 5^d. is 47291/ 

 9. 8Jrf. is -48045/., 9*. 10J</. is '49270/. 



Fill up all the remaininn placei with the decimal fraction derived 

 from the number of farthings above the last three halfpence for a 

 numerator, and 6 for a denominator. Thus, 9. 3rf. is completely ex- 

 pressed in -4625L, 9*. 5}rf. is '472916666 /., 9. 8 jrf. is -4864583333 



1., 9. I0{d. is -492708333 L, 10*. Ojd. is -508125/., St. 3ic/. is 



164583333 I. 



For the most part three places are sufficient ; and it is rarely that 

 more than five are wanted. The inverse rule, namely, that for reading 

 off a fraction of a pound into shillings, pence, and farthings, is done 

 from the first three places, within a farthing, by allowing a pair of 

 shillings for each unit in the first place, another shilling for 50 (if there 

 be so much) in the second and third places, and a farthing for each 1 

 that is left in the second and third places, deducting 1 if 25 or more 

 be left. Thus -12345/. is 2. 5jrf., '29933/. is 5s. 12rf.* or 6t., -2611. is 

 5*. 4\d. 



These rules look repulsive at first. None but those who have 

 practised them until the transformation is easily made, can have any 

 idea of the amount of labour which they save. They are in fact us 

 good as a decimal coinage to those who have mastered them. Those 

 who doubt of it may try the following question in the usual way, and 

 compare it with the decimal mode. 



When the government, for ease of calculation, proposed seven pence 

 in the pound instead of 3 per cent., as an income tax, how much tax, 

 to a farthing, did they give up on 100 millions of income 1 On one 



pound 3 per cent is -03, and seven pence is '0291666666 which 



falls short of the former by -0008333333 . . . : and this, taken 100 

 million of times, is 83333-3331., or 83S33/. 6. 8rf. 



Some development of the reasons for the plan which forms the 

 main part of this article will be found in the ' Companion to the 

 Almanac 'for 1844. 



CONCAVE and CONVEX CONCAVITY and CONVEXITY. 

 A curve or surface is concave on the side on which straight lines 

 drawn from point to point in it fall between the curve or surface and 

 the spectator ; that side is convex on which the curve or surface falls 

 between such lines and the spectator. A surface may be either 

 entirely concave, as the inside of a sphere, or entirely convex, as the 

 outside ; or concave in some directions and convex in others, as the 

 surface of a dice-box, or that made by the revolution of an hyperbola 

 about its minor axis. 



CONCAVE LENSES. [LENS.1 



CONCAVE MIRRORS. [MIRROR.] 



CONCEALMENT OF BIHTH. [INFANTICIDE.] 



CONCENTRIC, having the same centre ; thus, concentric circles 

 are those described about the same point. 



CONCERT, in music, a performance of several pieces of either vocal 

 or instrumental music, but commonly of both, by different voices, and 

 on various instrument*. The earliest concert of which we find any 

 record U that of the Filarmonici, at Vicenza, which must have been 

 founded previously to 1565; for in that year another society the 

 AttMMM, was joined to it. But to England is due the credit of 

 having instituted the first regular series of concerts, under the title of 

 Tkt Academy of Antient Altaic, which had its birth in 1710, and con- 



When 49 In left In the wcond and third plaon, thin mode I(TM the ..me 

 .. wh n in it \i ft. Tlir direct rule (rlmi the cxnct troth or a little l< M ti.e 

 Inrrw role *!< the rxcl uuth or a little mote ; nbout on* frthln more In 

 the CMC ben before ui. 



tinued to exist upwards of eighty years. The Concert Spirited of 

 Paris was indebted for ite origin to an elder brother of Philidor, the 

 well-known composer and renowned chess-player, who in 1725 obtained 

 licence for the performance of sacred music during Lent. This pro- 

 ceeded without interruption till the French Revolution. The year 

 1776 is distinguished in musical history by the institution of the 

 Conrrrt of Axlirni Altaic, which became the asylum of rliKinicnl com- 

 positions at a time when fashion threatened their extinction, and has 

 ever since proved a school of music of inestimable value, by keeping 

 alive a taste for the finest productions of the old master*. In 1791, 

 Salomon, the celebrated violinist, commenced a series of subscription 

 concerts at the Hanover Square Rooms, for which he engaged Haydn, 

 not only to write those twelve grand symphonies which are among the 

 glories of the art, but to come to London to conduct their performance. 

 These concerts continued to be given until 1796, when they ceased ; 

 and with them seemed to die away all relish for grand instrumental 

 compositions. But in 1818, a party of eminent professors, with a view 

 to rescue orchestral music of the highest class from the neglect into 

 which it had fallen, formed themselves into a body under the title of 

 the Philharmonic Society, and during that season they gave eight sub- 

 scription concerts, the success of which, both as regards the main 

 design and the support they received, was without any parallel. They 

 constitute an era in the art, and by their continuance act powerfully 

 in promoting the advance of music. 



Our space will only allow us to name some few other concerts which 

 have risen up in the British metropolis, flourished for a time, then 

 fallen to decay. Bach (John Christian) and Abel, in 1763, estil I 

 subscription concerts, which flourished for twenty years. The.- 

 succeeded by The Professional Concert, which, after a struggle, yielded 

 to the enterprise and ability of Salomon. The Vocal Concert* of 

 Harrison and Knyvett began in 1 792 at Willis's Rooms, and were dis- 

 continued at the end of the season of 1794. They were revival in 

 1801 by Messrs. Bartleman, Harrison, Knyvett, and Ureatorex, and 

 were conducted on a much larger scale. Their success at first was 

 great, but they gradually fell off, and in 1821 were finally abandoned. 

 In 1808, and two following years, Mrs. BUlington, Mr. Braham, and 

 Signor Naldi had subscription concerts at Willis's Rooms, and were 

 opposed by Madame Catalan! at the Hanover Square Rooms. In 1823, 

 a weak and futile attempt was made to establish Sritiih Concerts, for 

 the performance of music by native composers. For the same purpose 

 a society was founded in 1834, under the name of the Society of British 

 ifuticiant, but it has entirely failed in accomplishing its object hi 

 1833, a Vocal Society of thirty professional members sprang up at the 

 Hanover Square Rooms, and gave six concerts, consisting almost entirely 

 of vocal music, ancient and modern, of every school. They were con- 

 ducted on a principle so laudable that every lover of the art felt an 

 interest in their success. 



Among the more permanent concerts are those given by the pupils 

 of the Royal Academy of Music, at the Hanover Square concert rooms, 

 to which the public are admitted. Exeter Hall, Strand, is much used 

 for performances of various kinds of music, chiefly sacred. The Sacred 

 Harmonic, society, established in 1832, holds its meetings in this hall, 

 as does also the London Sacred Harmonic society, on offshoot of the 

 former. The oldest society in London for the practice and performance of 

 sacred music is the Cecilian society, established in 1785. There is also 

 the Choral society, established in 1791. The Royal Society of Musicians 

 was established in 1738, Handel being one of its earliest members and 

 benefactors. It was incorporated in 1 790, and its object is to relieve 

 decayed musicians, their widows and orphans, which it does by means 

 of a fund raised at various times by donations and bequests, and also 

 by the proceeds of concerts and an annual festival given by the society. 

 In 1889, the Society of Female Musician* was established for the relief 

 of its decayed members, and the first concert for the brnrtit of the 

 charity was given in June, 1840. We may also mention the Ma- 

 Society (1741), which has an annual festival in January in the Freemasons' 

 Hall, with monthly meetings during the season for the performance of 

 madrigals, motetts, &c. There is also the Wettern Madrigal Society 

 (1840) ; the Nobleman and Gtntleman't Catch Club (1761) ; the Glee Club 

 (1787) ; the Mdoditti' Club (1825) ; the PurceU Club (1837) ; the 

 Round, Catch, and Canon Club (1843) ; the Abbey Glee Club, founded 

 in 1841, by some gentlemen who had received their musical education 

 in the choir of Westminster Abbey ; the A<t-l/ihi iilce Club, so named 

 from having been founded in 1833 by two brothers. There is also the 

 Choral JJarmonitti Society (1884); the Amateur Musical Society (1846); 

 the Afutical Union (1845). Concerts ore also given at the Crystal 

 Palace, St. Martin's Hall, St. James's Hall, and other places in the 

 metropolis ; while there is scarcely a town in the kingdom that has 

 not its musical societies, which occasionally give concerts. Birmingham, 

 Liverpool, Bradford, Leeds, and Manchester, have their music halls, 

 their organs, their resident performers, and choruses. Even so remote 

 a town as Aberdeen has a new hall, an organ, and 600 chorus-singers. 

 This success is in great measure due to the foreign method of training 

 singers in lirge masses which was introduced into this country about 

 twenty years ago, under government patronage, and ably carried out 

 by Mr. John Hullah. In this method, not only is a rudimeutal musical 

 education given, but vocal part music is taught in large classes. 

 Teachers of the method have been scattered all over the land, so that, 

 aided by the publication of cheap music, a wide-spread taste for good 



