1 1 



. KB. 



CONFECTIONS ; CONFECTION' A i: V. 



1.13 



in the immediate channel ; and it la on this account that the Croton 

 Mid the Roquefavour aqueduct* were made of the precise sections 

 adopted in their respective nuas 



Notwithstanding the improvement* which have lately taken place in 

 the application of science to the purposes of building, it i* not possible 

 to suggest any material improvement upon the system adotitod by 

 the Roman engineers in the construction of their covered conduit* for 

 town supplies. They kept the extradoa of the covering of the vault 

 at least two feet below the ground, or they covered the vault with 

 earth of the same thicknet* when the conduit was raised above the 

 surface ; men holes were, however, left for the purpose of examination 

 and repair, and from distance to distance chimmes for ventilation were 

 Introduced. Oreat pains were taken to ensure the impermeability and 

 the solidity of the side* and bottom of the conduit, and the deposit of 

 any accidental impurities the waters might contain. The Croton 

 aqueduct was almost a literal copy of the old Roman works of the 

 same description; and if we except the construction of some very 

 unnecessary bridges, instead of using the modern system of oast-iron 

 reversed syphons, in passing some of the deep valleys, the whole of 

 this work may be referred to with satisfaction. It may be added, that 

 the Croton aqueduct is covered throughout its whole length, a pre- 

 caution which ought almost always to be adopted in executing the 

 conduits of town supplies. 



The dimensions to be given to a channel for conveying water, 

 merely by the velocity due to the fall of its entire length, are ascer- 

 tained on the principles that the mean velocity is to the maximum. 

 Telocity in the centre of the stream as 0'81 to 1-00, in the case of 

 small channels, and as 0'835 to 1-00 in larger ones. Then as the area 

 of the stream must be equal to the volume divided by the velocity, or 



as S = -, provided the mean velocity be known, the area of the trans- 

 verse section required to deliver a certain quantity of water may easily 

 be ascertained. It generally happens that the width of a conduit is 

 fixed by the peculiar circumstances of the case, as, for instance, in a 

 mill-race, it will be affected by the width of the stream allowed to fall 

 over the shuttle ; in a canal, by the beam of the barges ; and in a 

 water supply, by the necessity for examination and repairs. As the 

 beet depth is that equal to twice the width, to some extent the only 

 unknown element in the above equation is the velocity ; and inasmuch 

 as some of the conditions which limit the minimum velocity have 

 been already stated, it may be as well here to odd, that for a town 

 water supply it is considered that it is desirable, in order to maintain 

 a proper aeration of the waters, to secure a velocity of from 2 feet 

 8 inches to 3 feet per second. 



In fact, it thus appears that the whole of the conditions, as to the 

 section and fall of a channel, may be ascertained by the mean velocity 

 of the water flowing in it, and that the formula given by Mr. Beard- 

 more for calculating that velocity will, by transposition, furnish the 

 elements of the other unknown quantities. His formula may be 

 expressed thus : calling k the hydraulic mean depth in feet ; !, the 

 inclination of the channel, in feet per mile ; and r, the velocity of the 

 stream, in feet per minute ; then v = 55 -/h. 2 i. Of course this quantity 

 multiplied by the sectional area in feet gives the discharge in cubic 

 feet per minute. The hydraulic mean depth, it may be added, is 

 obtained by dividing the sectional area of the channel by the wet 

 border. [HYDRODYNAMICS.] 



CONE (Mathematics). In the most general sense, a cone is a sur- 

 face formed by the motion of a straight line indefinitely extended 

 in both directions, and which always passes through one given point 

 (called the vertex). Any curve in space may be a guiding line (or 

 directrix) through which the moving straight line may be made to pass. 

 But in common language the term cone is only applied to those 

 general cones in which the directrix is a circle. Of these there are 

 two kinds : the Mique cone, when the vertex is not in the axis of 

 the directing circle (the axis being the perpendicular drawn to the 

 plane of the circle through its centre) ; the right cone, in which the 

 vertex is in the axis. The most prominent distinction between these 

 two kinds of cones is this : that the oblique cone has two distinct 

 set* of circular sections, whose planes are not parallel to each other 

 [SUBCOMRAHY], while the right cone has only one set of circular 

 sections, all parallel to the directing circle. 



The right cone is an infinitely extended surface, or consists of two 

 cones (according to the most common notion) joined together by the 

 vertex : but out of mathematics a portion of such cone is called a 

 cone contained between the vertex and the directing circle, then collet: 

 the bate. In the rest of this article we shall use this meaning ol 

 the word. 



The surface of a cone (in the common sense) is one half the cir 

 cumference of it* base multiplied by the distance from the vertex to 

 the circumference of the base (called the ilaul litlt). Thus the dia- 

 meter of the base being 10 inches, or the circumference 31-416 inches, 

 and the slant aide being 20 inches, the surface of the pone i 1 x 20 x 

 81*416, or 314-16 square inches. The cone unrolled gives a sector o: 

 circle, the angle of which, in theoretical units [AsoLK], is the cir 

 cumference of the base divided by the slant side. Thus in the pre 

 ceding instance 81-416--- 20 or 1*5708 is the angle of the unrolled cone 

 which is a right angle. 



The solidity of a cone is one third of the product of the area of 

 .he base and the perpendicular distance of the vertex from the axis. 

 In the preceding instance the perpendicular aforesaid is 



V (tlant side - (rad. of base) , or V 40025. 



or */87S, or 19-3049 inches. The area of the base is 3-141rtx25, 

 or 78-54 square inches : and this multiplied by one third of 19-3649, 

 or 8-455, is 506-976, the number of cubic inche* in the cone. 

 The centre of gravity of a cone is in the axis, at a distance from the 



ntre of the bate equal to one-fourth the distance of the vertex. 



CONKAHIIKATION. [M.\m. 



CONFECTIONS; CONFECTIONARY. Confection*, called also 

 Coaterrrt, ore formed of fresh, generally succulent, vegetable sub- 

 stances, in a few instances with prepared chalk, as in the ai 

 confection, preserved by means of sugar or honey. These confections 

 were formerly much more numerous, and were examples of tin 

 pharmacy prevalent among our ancestors : the number might be still 

 illy reduced. The quantity of sugar required to prevent them 

 from spoiling is so great as to disagree with delicate stomach 

 several instances the ingredients are ordered to be kept apart, r if 

 associated in a dry state, the water or syrup is to be added when tin- 

 preparation is intended to be used ; as in the case of the arom.it ir, 

 opiate, and almond confection. This is especially necessary in regard 

 to the last ; for if bitter almonds should be accidentally introduced, 

 the presence of water might produce deleterious combinations. 



When astringent substances such as roses are to be pounded, this 

 process must be conducted in marble, not iron, mortars. The q> 

 of sugar is better to be excessive than deficient ; and more is r. 

 in wet seasons than in dry. The conserves should be put into several 

 small poU, rather than one large pot, which should be glazed with salt, 

 as in Bristol ware, not lead. They should then be well closed, and 

 kept in a dry cool place. Patent jars, of a very useful kind, are now 

 manufactured for this purpose. 



The chief confections are those of acorns, alkermea, almonds, bark, 

 cassia, catechu, copaiba, hemlock, hops, ipecacuanha, jalap, succory, 

 nitre, opium, orange 8owers and peel, pepper, peppermint, resin, rose, 

 rue, Bcammony, senna, 4c. 



Couftctimu are generally medicinal ; but confectionary most!;. 

 prises sweetmeats having no relation to the medical art. The i. 

 of this confectionary may be regarded as one of the domestic arts, 

 practised by highly paid persons in the mansions of the nul.i;; 

 other wealthy families ; but it is as a distinct trade that we here 

 view it. 



; is the basis of all confectionary ; and the processes of boiling, 

 clarifying, candying, crystallising, refining, bleaching, and otherwise 

 treating this important substance, must be well understood by a con- 

 fectioner. The boiling ia canned to nine or ten different degrees or 

 stages, technically known by the curious names of the " small thread," 

 the " large thread," the "little pearl," the " large pearl," the " blow," 

 the " feather," the " ball," the " crack," the " caramel," 4c. ; each stage 

 is applicable to a particular purpose in confectionary ; some for 

 some for candy, &c. These processes ore only an exemplification, on a 

 email and delicate scale, of those which the reader will find described 

 under Srii.ui. The tyrupi form an important section of tli- 

 fectioner's art. They are either the juices of flowers, or a decoction or 

 infusion of the leaves, flowers, or roots of vegetables, impregnated with 

 a sufficient quantity of sugar for their ] < in a liquid state. 



Many of these ore made only for medicinal purposes ; but 

 belong properly to confectionary, and comprise the agreea! 

 of raspberry, currant, cherry, mulberry, lemon, gooseberry, orange, 

 liquorice, violet, pink, rose, marshmallow, coltsfoot, ginger, alntoiul, 

 pistachio, or other vegetable substance. Instead of syrups, a 1 1 

 iu the mode of procedure will prod> . in which the vegi 



juice, decoction, or infusion is crystallised or granulated hit 

 substance. A third mode of treatment produces crackt, so named 

 from eating short and crisp, and including barley-sugar, sugar drops, 

 kisses, acid drops and sticks, brandy balls, rock, hardbake, Ac. Aii"iher 

 variety comprises loxiiga ; these consist of loaf sugar in tine powder, 

 mixed with various substances, made into a paste with dissolved gum, 

 rolled out into thin sheets, and formed by means of tin cutting-took 

 into small oval, square, round, or other shaped pieces. The substance 

 chosen to mix with the sugar is the juice or some other exti 

 peppermint, rose, cinnamon, clove, lavender, ginger, nutmeg, rip 

 tolu, saffron, marshmaUow, vanilla, catechu, Ac. 1'astili </,-<>/<* are 

 compounds of refined sugar with some kind of aromatic spirit 

 into flat drops. Uumjiti mostly consist of seeds, such as those <>i tlm 

 caraway, coriander, celery, or cardan j"*d in sugar; but some- 



times the inner substances thus treated are fragments of cinnamon, 

 almonds, barberries, preserved cherries, orange or 1,-im.n j < ]. An<'iln i 

 department of the confectioner's art is that of making ./ 

 are the juices of mm-ila^iums fruit*, combined with sugar, n-i 

 clear by filtering through a flannel bag, and 1>; Nil t > tin- well-known jelly- 

 like consistency ; they are made from a largo number of <1, 

 fruits. Marmalade* and jam arc preserves ol 



pear, quince, plum, or other fruit; the pulp of the fruit is boili-il with 

 sugarto the required thickness. Pattu are a similar kind of. marma- 

 lade or jam, but with an additional quantity of Murar, whirh ] 

 of the substance being crystallised or candied into ring.*, knot*, 



