1S5 



CONSUBSTANTIAL. 



CONSUL. 



1C8 



which is not absolutely implied in the hypothesis of the problem or 

 theorem in question. Thus, in the proof of the theorem, " the square 

 on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the 

 squares on the sides," the formation of the right-angled triangle and of 

 the squares is not technically considered as part of the construction, 

 the latter term being only used to imply all the additional formation 

 of figure necessary to the proof. 



A question is frequently said to be solved by construction, when it 

 is only meant that a geometrical method of solving it is adopted, as 

 distinguished from an algebraical solution. An equation is also some- 

 times said to be constructed, in the sense inverse to that in which it is 

 said to be solved ; that is, when the roots are given, and the equation 

 is required to be found. 



CONSUBSTANTIAL (Consubstantialis) is equivalent in expression 

 to co-essential, and is the translation of the term 6/noovirlos, homoousios, 

 which, in the commencement of the 4th century, was the subject of so 

 much zealous contention among the Trinitarian and Unitarian sects of 

 Christians. The Arians and Eusebians, who asserted the second person 

 of the Trinity, and the adherents of Macedonius, who asserted the 

 third person , to be different and distinct in nature from the first, were 

 strenuously opposed by the Athanasians, who, at the council of Nice 

 (A.D. 325), adopted as the pass-word of their party the term i^oown'of, 

 consubstantial, or, as it is Englished in the Nicene creed, " Of one 

 tubitance with the Father." There were three conflicting denomina- 

 tions : those who held the three persons to be of the same substance, 

 ijuooucrios ; those who asserted them to be of a gimilar substance, 

 inotouoios ; and those who contended that they were of a different sub- 

 stance, oKjfto'of. Between these parties the dispute was carried on 

 during several years with great violence ; and successive councils, 

 composed of hundreds of bishops, continued to meet for the purpose 

 of altering creeds and reciprocating anathemas. In modern times 

 the ii/o/ieiot doctrine has been advocated by Dr. Bury in his ' Naked 

 Gospel,' a work which, though condemned and burnt by the University 

 of Oxford, was approved and adopted by Locke, Clarke, and Whiston. 

 The circumstantial particulars of the ancient controversy may be found 

 in the various histories of the councils of that period, and its modern 

 revival in the numerous works on the Unitarian doctrines. See espe- 

 cially the article ' Arianismc,' in Plugnet's ' Diet, des Heresies." 



CONSUBSTANTIATION, or IMPANATION, is a term adopted 

 by the Lutheran Church to designate iU doctrine of the Eucharist, in 

 contradistinction to the transubstantiation of the Church of Rome. 

 Luther, after separating from the Roman Catholic communion, still re- 

 tained the doctrine of the real presence ; but instead of teaching, as the 

 Romanists do, that the priest's pronunciation of the words of conse- 

 cration at once deprive the bread and wine on the altar of their natural 

 qualities, and transform them into the real body and blood of Christ, 

 he taught that after the consecration of the bread and wine, they are 

 mysteriously accompanied with the real body and blood. In short, in 

 tramubitantiation, the divine body and blood is present without the 

 bread and wine ; and in contu/atautiation it is present with the bread 

 and wine : the former effects a change of nature, the latter a change of 

 circumstance. 



The Lutheran doctrine of consubstantiation was first introduced 

 into the church by John, sum.imed Pungens Asinus, a doctor of Paris, 

 at the end of the 13th century. His work on this subject, entitled 

 ' Determinatio F. Joannis Parisiensis de modo existendi Corpus Christi 

 in Sacramento Altaris," was republished by Allix in 1686. 



CONSUL (a word of the same family as cunsvlen, to consult), was 

 the title of the highest ordinary magistrate in the Roman republic. 

 King Tarquinius Superbus having been expelled from Rome for his 

 tyrannical conduct, by the joint efforts of the patricians and plebeians, 

 B.C. 409, a republic was established. Instead of kings, two function- 

 aries called consuls (consules, in Greek Svarot) were appointed to 

 administer the republic. The first consuls were Lucius Junius Brutus 

 and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus (or H. Horatius, according to Poly- 

 bius, iii 22). The consuls were annually elected in the Comitia Cen- 

 turiata, and at first were only chosen from the patricians. 



As the consulship was established in the place of the kingly 

 office, the consuls also were invested with the same power that the 

 kings had. (Niebuhr"s ' History ; ' Gibbon's ' History,' i. 3 ; Cicero, ' De 

 Leg.' iii. 3, who ascribes to them " regiam potestatem "). The consu- 

 late was, with the exception of the dictatorship, the highest, and, 

 before praetor, rediles, and censors existed, the only superior admi- 

 nistrative office in Rome. The consuls were at the head of the whole 

 republic ; the judiciary ( jurisdictio), the military (imperium), and the 

 executive powers were all united in them. Accordingly, we find them 

 also called prsetores, and judices, and imperatores. They presided in 

 the senate, where they had an elevated seat, and the business in the 

 comitia curiata and centuriita was conducted by them. The consuls 

 created the quaestors of the public treasury, and thus had great in- 

 fluence in the administration of the treasury, the quaestors being 

 dependent on them. They could also conclude peace and make 

 alliances. They were the supreme judges in all suits and criminal 

 trials. 



The copula possessed the same external insignia of honour as the 

 kings, except the golden crown and the trabea (purple cloak), which 

 latter they were only allowed to wear in a triumph. They had a 

 sceptre of ivory, with an eagle at the end. In the assemblies of the 



people they sat on the sella curulis (an ornamented chair) ; and like 

 the other senators they wore the toga prsetexta. Twelve lictors, with 

 the fasces and axes, as the symbol of the consuls' power over the lives 

 of the citizens, preceded each of them at first; but P. Valerius, called 

 Poplicola, a name which implies his respect, or affected respect, for 

 popular rights, limited the power of the consuls, and curtailed the 

 external symbols of their authority. In the city, the axes were taken 

 from the fasces, and only one of the consuls was preceded by the 

 twelve lictors. From their sentence appeals to the people were allowed. 

 From this time they were deprived of their former power of condemn- 

 ing citizens to death in Rome, and the power of scourging them only 

 remained. But while they were at the head of the army out of Rome, 

 they retained the axes in the fasces and all their former rights. The 

 consul who, according to the settlement of Valerius, was not preceded 

 by the twelve lictors, had a public slave, called accensus, to precede 

 him. The right to the twelve lictors and the supreme authority in 

 matters of administration were enjoyed by the consuls alternately 

 from month to month. 



The patricians, after expelling the kings with the help of the 

 plebeians, designed to transfer the royal power to themselves, which 

 they accomplished by securing the election of both consuls out of 

 their own body. The consuls therefore being invested with the 

 supreme power, the struggle of the people with the patricians was 

 at the same time a struggle against the consuls. Their power sustained 

 a great shock by the institution of the tribunes of the plebs. Each 

 of the tribunes, whose number at last amounted to ten, had the 

 right of putting his veto on the measures of the consuls. In 

 order to prevent arbitrary acts of the consuls, the tribune Terrentius, 

 B.C. 461, made a proposition for a code or collection of laws, and in the 

 year B.C. 452 ten men (decemviri) were named for this purpose, who 

 were invested with full powers, and all other functionaries for the 

 time were suspended. The consulate being re-established, the tribunes, 

 B.C. 444, proposed that the people should choose consuls from the 

 plebeians also, a proposal which gave rise to a long and violent contest. 

 The consulship was again suspended, and tribunes of war (tribuni 

 militares) with consular power were appointed, to which office ple- 

 beians also were made eligible. At last, B.C. 366, the first plebeian was 

 elected consul. (Liv. vi. 42; vii. i. 2, 21-6.) Afterwards both con- 

 suls were on several occasions plebeians. 



In the mean time the extension of the state made it impossible for 

 the consuls to perform the increased duties of their office, and new 

 functionaries were created. In B.C. 442, the censors, and B.C. 365, the 

 praetors, were created, which latter had the judicial functions pre- 

 viously attached to the consulate. In relation to these new magistrates, 

 the consul was called magistratus major, or superior magistrate. 



Though the consular power was thus much diminished, it was still 

 very great. All the officers of the state, except the tribunes, were 

 under the consuls ; they summoned the meetings of the senate, re- 

 ceived all despatches, and gave audiences to foreign ambassadors. In 

 time of war they were coinmanders-in-chief, and the election of the 

 military officers partly depended on them,.. In critical times the 

 consular power was made unlimited by the decree of the senate, 

 " videant consules ne quid respublica detrimenti capiat" (they should 

 take care that the republic sustained no harm). Under such circum- 

 stances they could require the strictest obedience from all the citizens ; 

 and they resumed their right to condemn to death without appeal. 



The imperium or military command was granted to the consuls by 

 the lex curiata [COMITIA], whereby a province (promncia) was assigned 

 to them. The term priscincia originally denoted the power given to 

 discharge some public duty out of Rome, particular! jtthe command o 

 the army in conquered countries ; and these countries themselves were 

 called provinciae (provinces). When a consul, after the expiration of 

 his term of office, was appointed to govern a province, he was called 

 pro-consul. 



At first no particular age was a necessary qualification for the con- 

 snlate. But by the lex Annalis, proposed by the tribune L. Villius, in 

 the year B.C. 181, a certain age was required for each magistrate; and 

 the consul must be forty-three years of age. But this law was not 

 always observed ; M. Valerius Corvus was elected consul in his twenty- 

 third, and Scipio Africanus in his twenty-eighth year. No one could 

 legally be re-elected till after an interval of ten years ; but M. Valerius 

 Corvus was re-elected six times and Marius seven times. 



The candidate for the consulate was requii ed to be at Rome when 

 the election took place in the comitia centuriata, a rule which was also 

 sometimes not regarded. The elder of the two consuls first received the 

 fasces, until the Emperor Augustus prescribed, by the law called lex 

 Julia and Papia Poppaea, that he should take them first who had most 

 children. The time of election varied at different periods of the 

 Commonwealth ; but they were always chosen some time before they 

 entered on office, and were called desiguati. The time of entrance on 

 office likewise varied ; but about B.C. 154 it was fixed that they should 

 always enter on their office on the 1st of January. The years were 

 named after the consuls, and annual registers were kept for that 

 purpose, which were called Fasti C'onsulares. When the consuls 

 entered on their office, they went in a solemn procession to the capitol 

 to sacrifice to Jupiter Capitolinus ; and after this ceremony the senate 

 held a solemn session. Within the five next days they were to take 

 the oath to administer the republic according to the laws ; and at the. 



