449 



DECOCTIONS. 



DEED. 



150 



that is, where the analogy of the causes is by no means apparent, and 

 where there even seems to be a direct contrast between them. 



The daily variation of the declination was first observed by Graham 

 in the early part of the last century. He found by very careful experi 

 ments upon excellent needles, that the declination was not uniform 

 during the whole period of a day ; sometimes being to the east, anc 

 sometimes to the west of the general mean declination at the time anc 

 place of observation. Canton, less than half a century later, made a 

 considerable number of observations, and a great number of experi- 

 ments on a subject, which he, like Graham, supposed to be collateral 

 with it, the influence of temperature upon the intensity and direction 

 of the needle. These inquiries were pursued with great success by 

 Mr. Christie, of the Royal Military Academy, and M. Kupfer, of 

 Casan. Separate parts, too, of this inquiry were attended with very 

 curious results in the hands of Mr. Barlow, likewise of Woolwich 

 Academy, on the influence of high temperatures ; and by Colonel 

 Beaufoy, in his careful observations on the actual daily variation for 

 several years before his death. 



This article is but a slight sketch of the general state of the science. 

 We refer to the articles MAGNETISM, TEMPERATURE, and VARIATION, 

 for details of the methods of observation and the theoretical views 

 which have been proposed. 



DECOCTIONS are formed by subjecting the harder parts of plants 

 which are not easily penetrated by liquids, or are insoluble in water of 

 a low temperature, to the process of boiling, generally in water, but 

 sometimes hi oil. By this means much of the substance is dissolved, 

 and the active principles of the plant are imbibed by the fluid, which 

 is then used medicinally either internally or externally. Porcelain 

 vessels, or those glazed with salt (Bristol ware), are to be preferred to 

 metallic vessels in most cases. This method of extracting the medi- 

 cinal properties of plants is inadmissible when their powers depend 

 upon any aromatic or volatile principle, such as essential oils, which 

 are dissipated by a high temperature. In many other instances this 

 process is not only unnecessary but injurious, being employed when 

 infusion is sufficient, even when cold water is used for the purpose of 

 infusion. Of this nature are all purely mucilaginous substances, such 

 as marsh-mallow (Altftea officinalu), quince-seeds (Cydmia rulijarii), Sic., 

 from which Trommsdorf has shown that a purer mucilage, which 

 keeps longer, may be obtained by cold water. All substances, the 

 astringent properties of which depend upon the presence of tamiic acid, 

 such aa oak-bark, tormentil-root, Ac., have then- astringent power im- 

 paired or completely destroyed by long boiling. Besides, boiling dis- 

 solves many principles, such as starch, &c., which are quite inert, and 

 which do not contribute to the efficacy of the medicine, while their 

 presence disposes the decoction to decomposition, a process very apt 

 to occur in decoctions, and rendering them unfit for use in a few days 

 or hours. Decoction is a mode of preparing substances most suitable 

 to those which are both nutritious and medicinal, such as Iceland moss 

 (Cftraria wlandiea). But when the bitter principle alone is wished, 

 cold infusion is better. Many principles which are dissolved by the 

 water at a boiling temperature are deposited by it by cooling, on which 

 account the liquid should always be strained while hot, and the con- 

 tents of the bottle shaken up before each dose be poured out. Aromatic 

 liquids are frequently added to the fluid after it is strained ; or the 

 aromatic substance may be placed at the bottom of the vessel into 

 which the hot decoction is strained, and, after being allowed to infuse 

 for a few hours, may then be applied to the use intended. A better 

 method, however, is to add some aromatic tincture after the straining, 

 as the presence of the spirit retards the tendency to decomposition, 

 while it imparts the flavour and qualities of the substances from which 

 it had been prepared. 



To render the heat steady, or uniform, various expedients are 



resorted to, such as, more especially on the Continent, a 4am marie, or 



sometimes Reindorf s apparatus ; a steam or vapour bath is also used. 



- In this country, where spirit of wine is expensive, gas has lately been 



used with excellent effect. 



To bring the temperature of the water up to the proper degree as 

 rapidly as possible, and thereby shorten the process, as well as lessen the 

 risk of empyreumatising the ingredients, the introduction of a jet of 

 steam is attended with advantage, especially in forming decoction of 

 sarsaparilla. 



To obviate some of the objections to decoctions, what are termed 

 Decocta. infiua have been introduced. The more insoluble substances 

 are first put into the water, as in common decoctions, then after 

 boiling half an hour or an hour, according to their nature, the more 

 soluble matters, or the boiling water, charged with what it has dis- 

 solved, is poured on the other ingredients, and having stood the usual 

 time, as for a common infusion, is strained. A better plan would be 

 the entire diuse of decoctions. 



DECOMPOSITION. When a compound body undergoes an entire 

 change of properties, either spontaneously or from chemical agency, it 

 is gaid to be decomposed ; thus, during fermentation, whether the 

 spirituous, acetous, or putrefactive, the substance undergoing it 

 suffers decomposition, and its elements recombine so as to form 

 new 1 compounds. This distinguishes it from mere mechanical 

 division, to whatever extent that may be carried. [ANALYSIS ; FER- 

 MENTATIONj 



DECREE, DECRETA'LES. The term decree (decretum) denotes 



ARTS AHD SCI. DIV. VOt. FIT. 



a decision or order by a competent power or magistrate, by which 

 some doubtful or disputed point of judicial inquiry is determined. In 

 England, the final judgment of the Court of Chancery is usually called 

 the decree. In Scotland, every judgment must contain a decree or 

 decerniture, which is effected by using the word " Decerns." 



It was usual among the Romans, in doubtful cases, to take the 

 opinion of lawyers, which were called " responsa prudentum," obtaining 

 the authority of law when they were unanimous. (Gai. 1-7.) When 

 all legislative power was centered in the emperor, it became the custom 

 to ask for his opinion in disputed cases. The decision was called a 

 rescript, and at once became a part of the imperial decrees or con- 

 stitutions. 



In ecclesiastical matters the clergy, following out the precedent of the 

 Roman empire, early introduced a practice of asking the opinions of- 

 the bishops, particularly of the bishop of Rome. The replies of the 

 pope ultimately obtained great authority, though they had not the 

 force of laws, so long as the legislative power belonged to the councils. 

 In the 12th century, the pope being regarded as the highest ecclesi- 

 astical authority, the whole ecclesiastical legislation was centered in 

 him, and the papal decrees became the only source of ecclesiastical law, 

 as the imperial constitutions had been for the civil law. The decrees 

 of the pope, which are called decretales, may be defined as decisions of 

 the popes in ecclesiastical matters of law. The decrees of the popes 

 retained their authority as law till the 14th century, when the power 

 of the holy see began to decline. [CANON LAW.] 



DECREE. [EQUITY.] 



DECREMENT. [INCREMENT.] 



DECREPITATION. A term applied in chemistry to the slight 

 explosions produced when certain crystallised salts are suddenly ex- 

 posed to a high temperature. The little explosious producing the 

 crackling noise of decrepitation, are caused by small portions of water 

 imprisoned within the crystals being converted into steam, which 

 acquires sufficient tension to tear asunder the walls of the chamber 

 within which it is confined. Common salt thrown upon a bright 

 cinder fire affords a good illustration of decrepitation. 



DECURIO'NES, a term which denotes certain persons who corre- 

 spond to the senate at Rome, in the Roman towns and colonies in 

 Italy which enjoyed free municipal rights. The body of the decuriones 

 was called ordo deeuriouum, and in later times also curia decurionum, 

 whence the members of the order were also designated by the name 

 curiales. The whole administration of the internal affairs of such 

 towns and colonies was in their hands. They were required to have 

 a certain estate, and to be at least twenty-five years old. It is com- 

 monly said that their number was ten, but it was usually greater, and 

 sometimes amounted to 100 members. At the head of the body were 

 the duumviri, that is, two men, like the two consuls, who presided in 

 the Roman senate. Those municipal corporations forming, as to their 

 internal administration, little republics, the citizens had the right of 

 choosing the duumviri just as the citizens of Rome elected their 

 consuls ; but under the emperors they were deprived of this privilege, 

 and the decuriones at the same time lost their power. The municipal 

 corporations were administered by officers appointed by the em- 

 peror ; and the decuriones were only employed to receive the taxes, 

 which subjected them to a great responsibility. The office of a 

 decurion being now considered as a burden, was no longer sought 

 after, and lost its former importance. (Sigonius, 'De Antiq. Jur. 

 Ital.' ii. 4.) 



DEDICATION. [CONSECRATION.] 



DEED (in law), an instrument in writing or print, upon paper or 

 parchment, comprehending the terms of agreement between parties 

 ible to contract, duly sealed and delivered. Deeds are of two kinds, 

 .ndented and poll : a deed indented is called an indenture, and origi- 

 nally had, and indeed now sometimes has, a waving line cut (in modum. 

 dentium) on one of the edges of the material upon which it is written, 

 usually the top edge, and when the deed consists of more sheets than 

 one, on the first sheet only. The term indenture implies that the 

 deed is of two parts, and that they were divided by the line in order 

 'M afford additional means of authentication ; but, except in the case of 



ses, marriage settlements, partnership deeds, and some few others, 

 ihere are seldom more parts than one. In deeds effectuating modern 

 transactions, indeed, the expense of stamps is so heavy, that frequently, 

 where two or more parties are equally interested in a deed, it is depo- 

 sited with some person for their joint use. Hence the term indenture, 

 in common acceptation, now implies little more than that the deed is 

 made by and between two or more parties. Anciently some word, as, 

 for instance, " chirographum " (whence " chirograph "), was written in 

 capital letters upon the part where the parchment or paper was to be 

 divided, and afterwards cut in an indented, or in some cases a straight 

 ine. 



The stat. 8 & 9 Viet. c. 106, enacts that a deed executed after 

 Oct. 1st, 1845, purporting to be an indenture, shall have the effect of 

 one, though not actually indented. 



A deed poll is cut even, or polled at the edges, and is usually of one 

 jart only; that is, the deed of one party, or of several parties of the 

 same part. The form commences in the mode of a declaration : "Know 

 all men by these presents, that," &c. The form appropriated to an 

 ndenture or a deed among several parties is, " This indenture, made, 

 &c., between, &c. Witneaseth," &c. 



o a 



