n>i:Tr\r. 



IMKI'M. 



17(1 



prweat itself for fortifying town or military poet of importance, it 

 may be found convenient to adopt some improvement* in the con- 

 struction of the work*. Thus, the general system of Vauban, with 

 the modification* propowd by Cormontaingne, being retained as the 

 baas, casemates, like those of Hontalembert, might be formed in the 

 re-entering angles of the enceinte or tenailles, and detached walla or 

 galleries for musketry in some of the dry ditches : detached ravelins, 

 as proposed by Bousmard, may be constructed beyond those of the 

 icdinary kind, in order to prevent the enceinte from being breached at 

 the first crowning of the glacis ; and a direct defence of the covered 

 way may be obtained from galleries formed within, or on the exterior 

 of, the parapets along the faces of the works. 



In the open attack of a fortified place it is evident that the loss of 

 life would be so much the greater as the defensive works are stronger 

 and better combined ; and, in consequence, the necessity of nuking 

 the approaches under cover to the last moment of the siege, would 

 become more urgent. 



For the works occasionally constructed beyond the glacis of a 

 fortress, see FICHE, HORN-WORK, LUNETTES, and TENAILLONS. 



Of the works which fall under the denomination of field-fortifications, 

 BRIDOE-BFADS have been already mentioned ; REDANS, KEDODBTS, 

 and STAR-FORTS are described under those words ; and the combina- 

 tions of works which serve for the protection of armies, that is, 

 field Foriifeation, under LINES OF KNTIU NCHMEKT. Small forts with 

 bastions are frequently employed in field-fortifications : their plan is 

 similar to that of the enceinte of a fortress ; but they differ from the 

 latter in their size, in having low relief, and in the sides of their 

 ditches being unrevetted, or only faced with sods. 



The limits of on article such as this, will only permit of the most 

 cursory notice of this complicated and intricate subject : the reader is 

 therefore referred for further particulars to the standard works, such 

 as Bousmard's ' Eesai General de Fortification ;' Dufour's ' Memorial 

 pour lee travauz de guerre ;' Carnot , ' De la Defence des places fortes ;' 

 Sir John Jones' ' Sieges in Spain ;' Belma's ' Sieges in Spain ;' St. Paul's 

 ' Traite" de Fortification ;' ' Aide Mcmoire (English) to the Military 

 Sciences;' Capt Macauley, R.E., on 'Field Fortification;' Lieut.-Col. 

 Jebb, R.E., ' Treatises on Defending Outposts,' and ' The Attack ;' 

 Straith's ' Fortification,' revised and re-arranged by Cook and Hyde, 

 7th edition, &c. 



i goddess who 

 " men; 



FORTUNE (Fortuna), in the Roman mythology, was a goddesi 

 ras supposed to dispose, at her caprice, of the destinies of 



Fortune. From the tutue in the liriti-h Miucum. 



corresponding in a great measure to Trciut of the Greeks. This deity 

 did not figure in the more ancient systems of theosopby ; Homer does 



not mention Fortune in the Iliad, but refers the events of this world 

 to the decrees of Jupiter and of Fate. Fortune however was wor- 

 shipped in Italy of old; by the Etruscans at Volnmii, under the 

 name of Nursia ; by the Latins at Prameste; and by the Volsci at 

 Antium, where n splendid temple was dedicated to her, in which a 

 sort of oracles was delivered. She had several temples at R<>me. 

 As directing the events of life she was represented with a rudder ; 

 with a ball as typical of the instability of fortune ; and with a cornu- 

 copia and occasionally with the modius as diffusing abundance and 

 prosperity. We give an engraving of a statue of Fortuna, in which 

 all these attributes are united : the original, a small but very graceful 

 marble statue (8 feet 1 inch high) is in the Third Greco-Roman Saloon 

 of the British Museum. (Lactantius, liutil. i. 29 ; Horace, Od. i. 35 ; 

 Martial, r. ep. 1.) 



FORUM, a large open space in ancient Roman cities (corresjxindinK 

 to the Agora of the Greeks), usually surrounded with public buildings, 

 where the citizens met to transact business, and where, previous to 

 the erection of Basilica;, causes were tried. From this last circum- 

 stance the word forum is used metaphorically for a place of j 

 Nanlini is of opinion, though without any show of authority, tli.it ;h,- 

 first forum, or Forum Romanum, at Rome, was placed on the Palatine 

 Hill. The Greeks made their Agora square, with a double colonnade, 

 or ambulatory, above and below ; but in Italy the width of the forum 

 was made less than the length by a third, and the columns set wide 

 apart, as the gladiatorial shows were formerly given in the forum. 

 (Vitruvius, lib. v. 1.) The Roman fora were of two kinds, Fora Civilia 

 and Venalia : the former were for law and political affairs, the latter 

 for the purposes of trade. Rome contained nineteen fora of import- 

 ance, the Forum Antonini, Archemorium, Argentarium, August!, 

 Boarium, Ctcsaris, Cupidinis, Neroe, Olitorium, Piscarium, Piacato- 

 rium, Pistorium, Romanum, Sallustii, Suarium, Tauri, Trajani, Transi- 

 torium, and Vespasian!. Of these the Forum Romanum, Nervte, 

 Trajani, Boarium, and Piscatorium, alone retain any traces of the 

 splendid edifices with which they were once adorned. The Forum 

 Romanum is situated in a narrow valley, not far from the Tiber, 

 between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills. It sweeps round towards 

 the Fora of Caesar and Augustus, which are between it and the larger 

 Fora of Nerva and Trajan, all which, looking at their relative situations, 

 were no doubt connected with it on the north. On the south it 

 extended nearly to the Fora Boarium and Piscatorium, which were 

 near the Pons Palatinus, now called Ponte Rotto : its exact limits are, 

 however, uncertain. It was decorated with temple*, statues, basilica:, 

 curia?, rostra, triumphal columns, and arches, which usurped the place 

 of shops, schools, and even private houses, that originally stood in this 

 forum. In the forum were the rostra, or pulpits, decorated with the 

 beaks of ships, whence the orators harangued. According to Appian, 

 the rostra were placed in the middle of the forum ; and he states that 

 Sulla caused the head of young Marius to be hung up before the rostra 

 in the middle of the forum. Varro, in his fourth book, ' De Lingua 

 Latina,' places the rostra before the curia, which was near the Comi- 

 tium, so that the orators would stand with their faces towards the 

 capitol ; but Plutarch, in speaking of the Gracchi, states the reverse to 

 be the case. 



The Comitium was placed near the Curia ; three columns of the 

 former, commonly called the Temple of Jupiter Stator, still r. 

 Nardini places on the side of the Palatine Hill, in succession, the 

 Fabian Arch, Gnecostasis, Senalum, Basilica Opimia, .Ddicula < 

 cord, Temple of Romulua, Temple of the Dii Penates, Curia Ostilia, 

 near which was the Comitium, Basilica Portia, Temples of Julius ( 

 and Castor and Pollux. On the side towards the Tiber stood the 

 Temples of Jupiter Stator, Temple and Atrium of Vesta, Basilica Julia, 

 house of Lucius Tarquinius, and the Temple of Victory. On the side 

 of the Capitol were the Arch of Tiberius, the temples of Saturn, of 

 Concord, and of Vespasian, the school of Xanthuo, the Arch of Severus, 

 which still remains, and the Tullian Prisons. On the north side <>f tin- 

 forum were the office of the secretary to the senate, and the Basilica of 

 Paulus Emilius. There are, however, but few remains existing of a 

 small number of these numerous buildings, and the greater part have 

 entirely disappeared. A single monumental column stands near the 

 Comitium, called the Column of Phocas. Besides these buildings, 

 there are remains of the temples of Fortune, Jupiter Tonans, Jupiter 

 Capitolinus, and the Tahulariuin, though these are perhaps not within 

 the boundaries of the forum. (See plates in Nordlni's ' Rome,' vol. ii., 

 lib. v., c. 1.) A very beautiful restored view of the Forum Romanum 

 was made by Mr. C. H. Cockerell, R. A. , and a reduced view was engraved 

 and published, with his permission, in the second volume of the 

 ' Pompeii,' published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Know- 

 ledge, to which we refer our readers for an accurate notion of the 

 splendour of the accumulated architecture of the Forum and the 

 Capitol, and its vicinity. 



The forum at Pompeii was constructed in the Greek style, and has 

 many Greek features. It is oblong, surrounded on three sides with rows 

 of columns, forming, with the advanced columns of the various buildings, 

 a colonnade or ambulatory ; above this there wag a second ambulatory, 

 if we may judge from the remains of stairs at several places at the 

 back of the colonnade. The fourth side of the forum is inclosed with 

 two arches placed on each side of a large hypathral temple, calli-.l '.}> 

 Temple of Jupiter. On the west side are the prisons and the granary 



