KRUS 



a cone wuctt ace* not contain the vertex. 

 became any part of a cone which contains 

 FUCUSAMIDE (C^H..!!^,). An 01 

 ambling furfuramide, with which it is 



Prune. I'.eOOcwU. 



ItalshM '.TII, ooo 



TmmmrimU 1,100,1100 It*. 



Varlau 97,000 biuhell 



Some of these were exported to other countries; the home con- 

 sumption did uot quite reach the above quantities. 



FKUSTt'M. a portion cut off from any solid figure. The torin is 

 most frequently applied in the case of the cone, and conoidal surfaces 

 of revolution. By frustum of a cone " is meant any part cut off from 

 a cone which does not contain the vertex. This distinction is drawn 



i contains the vertex is another cone, 

 organic compound much re- 



, is isomeric; obtained by the 



action of ammonia upon fuftaoi. 



FUCUSINE (CjoH.jN.O,). An alkaloid isomeric with furfurine, 

 obtained by boiling fuctuamide with caustic potash or soda, 



Fl'CUSOL (C 10 H,0.). An organic substance isomeric with far- 

 /urn/, obtained by distilling marine algie with dilute sulphuric acid. 



Fl'EL. is any combustible matter employed for the purpose of 

 creating and maintaining heat. In the early ages of the world, wood 

 must have constituted, as indeed in many countries it does to this day, 

 the principal fuel employed. Wood consists chiefly of three tioMBfc, 

 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The two former are both of them 

 highly combustible, hydrogen being especially so, and giving rise to 

 the flame with which wood is well known to burn. When the smoke 

 occasioned by the combustion of wood is found inconvenient, or when 

 the fuel is required to last for a longer period in a given bulk, then 

 charcoal U employed, which is merely wood that has undergone imper- 

 fect combustion, so as to expel its hydrogen and oxygen, and to leave 

 the greater part of the carbon. 



Another kind of fuel, which doubtless was early in use on account 

 of the facility with which it is obtained from its nearness to the surface, 

 is peal, or, as it is sometimes called, turf. This is a congeries of vege- 

 table matter, in which the remains of organisation are more or leas 

 visible. Peat is the common fuel of a large part of Wales and Scot- 

 land, and of many districts of England, where coal is not readily 

 procured. 



In this country, however, coal furnishes the great supply of fuel, 

 and its various kinds are employed in different ways and for different 

 purposes, according to its nature and that of the substance to be acted 

 on by its agency. When coal, by a process analogous to that by which 

 charcoal is procured from wood, is freed from its more volatile con- 

 stituente, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, it is converted into coke. 

 It then burns with but little flame and no smoke, and is used for 

 giving an intense degree of heat in the reduction of most metallic 

 ores, especially those of iron. In some cases a mixture of coke and 

 charcoal U very advantageously employed, especially in assaying in 

 the small way. The mixture gives out a great degree of heat while 

 burning, and being more combustible than coke alone, small fur- 

 naces, in which the draught is less powerful than in larger ones, are 

 particularly adapted for its use ; and though it consumes faster than 

 coke, it lasts longer, gives a greater heat, and is more economical than 

 charcoal alone. 



In some countries, even the dried excrement of animals is used as 

 fuel ; and from the use of camels' dung the formation of sal ammoniac 

 was derived in Egypt ; this unit subliming from the excrement during 

 its combustion. 



In small chemical operations, as for the blow-pipe, tallow or wax 

 candles are frequently employed ; and in lamps, oil, spirit of wine, or 

 methylated spirit are employed, and at the present time coal gas is 

 almost universally used, either for the purpose of boiling or evaporating 

 11 quantities of fluids, or dissolving various bodies in different 



During the combustion of different kinds of fuel, the products vary : 

 thus, when wood, coal, wax, tallow, oil, alcohol, or coal gas is employed, 

 the principal products are carbonic acid gas and water ; when . 

 is used, carbonic acid is almost the only volatile substance formed, 

 for the hydrogen which the wood contained is expelled by the process 

 of charring. 



The sources of ordinary fuel will be found sufficiently described 

 under CHARCOAL, COAL, COK, OAS-I.IOIITIXC;, Ac. A few words may, 

 however, usefully be said concerning some of the kinds of artificial 

 fuel introduced within the last few years. Gram's patent i< 

 planned with a view to make use of the small coal which is so exten- 

 sively left to waste at the mouths of the pits; this coal to be mixed 

 witli e.irthy substances, such as sand, marl, clay, or alluvial <! 

 or with some bituminous substance, such as mineral tar, coal tar, gas 

 tar, pitch, resin, or asphaltum ; or with saw dust, coke dust, or breese. 

 In short, this was one of those vague patents which defeat their own 

 purpose by the widcness of their grasp. Mr. C. W. Williams, 

 managing director of the Dublin Steam Packet Company, lias patented 

 three or four inventions for artificial fuel in which peat shall be one of 

 the ingredient*. The peat, after being partially dried, is pressed 

 with great force, to expel the remaining moisture; and it is then 

 mixed with some bituminous substance. By different modes of treat- 

 ment Mr. Williams produced a very dense brown combustible solid, a 

 charcoal twice a* compact as hard wood charcoal, an artificial coal, and 

 an artificial coke. Mr. BetheU's patent fuel consists of small coke and dust 



from gas works, or broese ; the breose is mixed with coal tar and put 

 into a coke oven, where it is Imrnvd into good coke. If I. urn, I in 

 open heaps, it would aim produce coke, but of inferior quality. 

 Seventy-five per cent, of breese is found to be a good proportion with 

 twenty-five of pitch or coal-tar. Instead of coke, bricks of artificial 

 fuel are sometimes produced by casting the mixture into iron moulds, 

 and baking. Mr. Warlich's patent fuel is employed rather ext^n 

 it is made of some such mixture of materials aa Bethell's, but with 

 especial attention to its fitness for use in marine engine furnace*, 

 locomotive furnaces, and stationary engine furnaces. In the investiga- 

 tions made by commissioner* employed by the Admiralty, into the 

 qualities of various kinds of fuel adapted for the engines of )(. M ' 

 steam navy, Warlich's, and some other kintls of artificial f u. 

 found to be favourable, when alternating under certain ooniliti.-i 

 good coal. Dr. Arnott, in a Report on the Paris Exhibition of 

 said : " A very important object exhibited was a prepared fuel called 

 the t'Art de Parit. The manufacturer takes fragments or <1 

 bituminous coal, or of anthracite, charcoal, or coke, and mixing these 

 in certain proportions with coal-tar, 4c. makes a soft mans, which, by 

 moulding, he shapes into cylindrical pieces about four inches long by 

 one and a quarter in diameter ; anil ho afterwards hardens them by 

 heat, these being very like charcoal, free from slate, and giving 

 intense heat. There are now many makers of such fuel, oaming to 

 believe the excellence of their product to depend chiefly on the 

 proportions of the ingredients, and attributing too little to the u 

 size and shape of the pieces, which allow that rightly-proportioned 

 air to them on which perfect combustion so much depend*. 



here were in the Exhibition many specimens, both continental ami 

 English, of artificial coke or fuel of kindred composition, in much 

 larger masses. An obvious advantage of such over common cool Li 

 that the lumps, when put together, occupy less space than an 

 weight of irregularly- broken common coal, and therefore can be stowed 

 more advantageously in ships. And in the composition, there may be 

 of bitumen or pitchy matter just what aids the steady com': 

 without causing smoke; having, therefore, neither the excess nor the 

 deficiency found in many natural coals." 



Nearly all these kinds of artificial fuel consist of small coal, small 

 coke, ashes, and bituminous substances, combined in \.uiousn 

 and various degrees, and subjected to different mode 

 There is one exception, however, in the case of the Triniilud j.ii 

 with which no kind of coal or coke is mixed. There is a great piteh like 

 on that island; and a company has been formed fur converting the pitch 

 into fuel, by mixing it with wood shavings. The pitch, thoroughly 

 wetted, is mixed with about eight per cent of shavings, ami i 

 moulded into blocks. For engineering purposes, these 1>1. 

 bituminous fuel ore mixed with about half their weight of Merthyr 

 coal. The pitch combined with coal alone is not found to burn well : 

 but the small per centage of wood shavings or ligneous fibre is 

 impart the necessary qualities for steady and profitable combu.- 1 



FUGUE, in music, is a composition in which a subject, or 

 air, passes successively and alternately from one part to anothei. 

 according to certain rules of harmony anil modulation. Such is 

 Rousseau's definition, which would have I mnplcte if he had 



added that the Fugue is also formed after rules peculiar to 

 The term seems to have originated about the middle of the 15th 

 century, and is commonly supposed to be il- 



word fu'/a, (flight), because the theme, or point, Hies from part to 

 part; but this etymology is by no means K though we 



certainly have no better to offer. 



Writers on music enumerate many kinds of Fugue, the cl 

 which are, the Strict Puyut, the Free Ftiflitr, the Dtmblr Fugue, and the 

 Ixrerted Fu;/nt ; to which wo shall add that species for it decidedly 

 belongs to the Fugue genus called Imitation. 



" In a Strict Fugue," says Dr. Crotch (' I'.l. im nt- of Composition '), 

 "the subject is given out by one of the parts, then the answer is made 

 by another; and afterwards the subject is repeated by a third part, 

 and, if the fugue a answer is again made by the 



fourth port : after whirl ser may use either the subject or 



the answer, or small poition-.,! them, in any key that he pleases, or 

 even on different notes of the key." In this severe kind < 

 position, when the subject, or leader, or point, or c/x.r, or by whatever 

 name the theme may be designated, is comprised between Hi 

 and the dominant the answer (or Coma) must be Riven in tin 

 contained between the dominant and the octave. Example : 



A*n>tr. 



The chorus, ' He trusted in God.' in the ' Mettniah,' is a fine s]>. 



of this sort of fiiRUp, to which wo refer the reader; for few persons 



are without that sublime oratorio in some 



In the Free Fugue much more latitude is allowed the composer; 

 he is not no restrained by the subject, but may introduce \\liat 

 AlbrechUberger terms episodes passages not closely ivhted to the 



