251 



GAOL. 



GARDEN. 



282 



note the O below the base clef. The word is compounded of the 

 name of the third letter in the Greek alphabet, F (gamma), the final 

 vowel being cut off, with the syllable ut added. In the llth century 

 the ancient scale was extended by the addition of a note below that 

 sound which the Greeks called prostamban&menos (that is, super- 

 numerary), the latter answering to our A, the first space of the base 

 staff, and the note was called Gamm'-ut, that is, o ut, or o do. 



The invention of the gammut in its antiquated form is generally 

 ascribed to Guido d'Arezzo, but it now seems nearly certain that in 

 part, if not wholly, it existed much earlier than his period. It long 

 continued in use, and was one of the many stumbling-blocks in the 

 path of musical students. Happily little more than the name remains ; 

 it is therefore unnecessary for us to enter further into the subject. 



GAOL. [PRISON ; PENAL SERVITUDE.] 



GAOL DELIVERY. The commission of gaol delivery is directed 

 to the justices of assize of each circuit, the Serjeants and queen's 

 counsel attending that circuit, the clerk of the assize, and the judges' 

 associate. It is a patent in the nature of a letter from the sovereign, 

 constituting them his justices, and commanding them, four, three, or 

 two of them, (of which number there must be one at least of the 

 judges and others specified) to deliver his gaol at a particular town of 

 the prisoners in it ; it also informs them that the sheriff is commanded 

 to bring the 'prisoners and their attachments before them at a day to 

 be named by the commissioners themselves. Under this commission 

 the judges may proceed upon any indictment of felony or trespass 

 found before other justices against any person in the prison mentioned 

 in their commission and not 'determined, in which respect their 

 authority differs from that of justices of oyer and terminer, who can 

 proceed only upon indictment found before themselves. (2 Hale, P. C.) 

 [AssiZE.] 



Anciently it was the course to issue special writs of gaol delivery for 

 each prisoner, but this being found inconvenient and oppressive, a 

 general commission has long been established in their stead. (4 BL 

 'Com.;' Hawk, P. C.) 



GARANCIN. [MADDER, colouring matters of.] 



GARDEN. A garden, as distinguished from a farm, is a piece of 

 ground designed for the cultivation of plants not actually indispensable 

 to man for food. While corn for flour, various roots and herbs for the 

 sustenance of cattle, or tracts of pasture Land on which animals destined 

 for slaughter are maintained, constitute the essential features of a farm ; 

 a garden, even when exclusively occupied by culinary vegetables, is 

 still a source of objects of luxury, not of first necessity. In a more 

 extended sense, and as it usually exists at the present day, it is chiefly 

 intended to gratify the senses and to minister to the more refined 

 enjoyments of social life. 



The possession of a garden is one of the most early indications of 

 civilisation in man, and it is only among the most brutal and degraded 

 races of savages that it is altogether unknown ; while we find such an 

 appendage to a dwelling increased in magnificence, or diminished and 

 neglected, with the prosperity or decline of the most mighty states. 

 It is Lord Bacon who says that " when ages do grow to civility and 

 elegancy, men come to build stately sooner than to garden finely, as if 

 gardening were the greater perfection." 



According to Sir John Malcolm, the Persians had gardens from the 

 period of their first king Mahabad. We learn from Xenophon that 

 Cyrus considered them an indispensable appendage of his residences. 

 " Wherever he resides, or whatever place he visits in his dominions, he 

 takes care that the paradises shall be filled with all that is beautiful 

 and useful which the soil can produce." (' Cyropaed.' v.) And it 

 appears upon the testimony of Pliny and other Roman authors, that 

 among the same people small gardens existed, in which trees were 

 arranged in straight lines and regular figures, the margins of the walks 

 being planted witlj tufts of roses, violets, and other odoriferous flowering 

 plants, while the trees consisted of kinds grateful for their fragrance, 

 as the cypress and the pine, or agreeable for their shade, as the plane 

 and the common elm. The Greeks, hi their most flourishing times, 

 appear to have been equally attached to the formation of gardens, and 

 in some respects, to the nicer parts of the art of gardening. The 

 Oriental narcissus, violet, ivy, and rose, are mentioned as their favourite 

 flowers, and terebinthinuus trees as those which were chiefly valued for 

 their fragrance. The rich and polished Athenians are represented by 

 Mr. Meason as having borrowed then- gardening from Asia Minor. 

 Myrtles and roses, the box and the lime-tree, were planted for clipping 

 into artificial forms, while flowers and fruits were cultivated in the 

 winter, and the violet was in profusion in the Athenian markets when 

 snow, was lying on the ground. 



Theophrastus himself not only gives directions for gardening ope- 

 rations, many of which were fanciful enough, such as sowing rue with 

 chips of fig-wood, and pulling up esculents by way of making them 

 fender, instead of cutting them ; but he had a garden of his own 

 which he left to ten of his friends to be preserved us a place of public 

 lor those who employed their leisure in letters and philosophy, 

 i'rrt., v. 53.) The instances of the kings Attalus Philometor 

 [ATT/ DO. Div.] and Mithridates, who cultivated all sorts of 



;>lant in their gardens, are perhaps the earliest upon record 

 of such places being occupied for medical purposes. 



It is not to be supposed that gardens were neglected by the luxurious 

 and wealthy Romans. The prodigious gardens of Lucullus, who intro- 



duced the cherry, the peach, and the apricot from the Persians, were 

 derided by his Roman friends for then- extraordinary sumptuosity. They 

 are related to have consisted of immense artificial towers, large' sheets 

 of water, gigantic edifices jutting into the sea, and mountains raised 

 where no hill had existed before. Such an example might be ridiculed 

 by some, but was certain to be followed by others whose taste for 

 splendour and profusion was supported by unbounded wealth ; and 

 accordingly, the gardens of Sallust, of the emperors Nero and Hadrian* 

 and of many of their subjects, are doubtless to be classed in the same 

 order as those of Lucullus. It is, however, to be remembered, that 

 such gardens were rather more similar to an English park and garden 

 combined than to a mere garden, in the modern sense of the word, and 

 moreover were so uncommon as to be looked upon with wonder by the 

 people among whom they were created. A common Roman garden 

 must have been a very different place, if we are to take the description 

 given by Virgil (' Georgic.,' iv. 121) as at all a faithful sketch ; for 

 he speaks of nothing but endive (intyba), celery (apium), melons? 

 (cueumis), narcissi, acanthus, roses, ivy, and myrtles. That they had 

 various trees bearing fruit, as well as the common wild timber of the 

 country, and many different kinds of flowers, must of course be 

 admitted ; but that all gardens, up to the most flourishing period of 

 the Roman empire, must have been much alike as regards the plants 

 they contained, is manifest from the fact that hardly more than seventy 

 plants of all descriptions are noticed by this poet, although he wrote 

 professedly upon rural affairs. It is true that the Romans carried their 

 passion for flowers so far that it became necessary to restrain it by 

 sumptuary laws, and that cases of extreme profusion in the use of 

 them are mentioned by historians. The institution of Floralia, or 

 flower-feasts, the universal passion for garlands, the reproaches 

 addressed by Cicero to Verres for having made the tour of Sicily 

 in a litter, seated on roses and decked with festoons of flowers, are a 

 sufficient evidence of this taste having been carried to an extent 

 unknown at the present day; to say nothing of the prodigality of 

 Heliogabalus, or of Cleopatra, the latter of whom is said by Athenams 

 to have paid upwards of 20(M. (an Egyptian talent) for roses expended 

 at one supper. But notwithstanding this, the variety of plants that 

 were cultivated in the gardens of both Greeks and Romans must have 

 been extremely small. Theophrastus speaks only of roses, gillyflowers, 

 violets, narcissi, and iris, as used for decoration, to which the larkspur 

 and gladiolus (hyacinthus), with the white lily, and a few others, may 

 be added. The great object of their admiration was roses, which were 

 forced by plates of talc (said to have been as much as five feet long ; 

 but it is more probable that these speciUaria were sashes five feet long, 

 glazed with talc) being placed over bushes watered with warm water. 

 Pliny, in his ' Natural History,' does not enumerate above 1000 plants 

 of all descriptions, a very small part of which were objects of culti- 

 vation. At the fall of the Roman empire the following appear, from 

 Mr. London's statement, to have been the principal garden plants, 

 exclusive of common trees and flowers. 1. Culinary plants : peas, 

 beans, vetches, lentils, kidney-beans, gourds, cucumbers, melons, cab- 

 bages of many sorts, turnips, carrots, parsnips, beet, skirret, radishes, 

 sorrel, asparagus, onion, garlic, and other alliaceous plants, endive, 

 lettuce, succory, mustard, and other salads, parsley, celery, orach, 



alexanders, elecampane, fennel, chervil, and some others. 2. bruits : 



fig, almond, citron, peach, pomegranate, apricot, plums, and cherries ; 

 twenty-two sorts of apples, thirty-six sorts of pears, services, quinces, 

 and medlars; many kind of grapes, mulberries, nuts, walnuts, chesnuts, 

 stone-pines, or pignons, olives, and carobs. They forced flowers with 

 sashes of talc, as has already been noticed, and also cucumbers ; it is 

 probable that they extended this practice even to fruits. 



With the fall of the Roman empire the art of gardening seems to 

 have been lost, and it was not till a long time after that gardens are 

 again heard of. It was among the monks that the arts of cultivation 

 were preserved, and in connection with monastic institutions gardens 

 again became matter of history. In these religious institutions, which 

 were in many respects the only spots where the arts of peace could 

 find shelter during ages of rapine and violence, gardens continued to 

 be cherished; and although the ignorance of the monks prevented 

 then- being rendered so useful as they might have been, yet, on the 

 other hand, their sacred protection opposed an effectual barrier to the 

 wild progress of destruction. 



Among his many reformations, the re-establishment of gardens 

 formed part of the policy of the emperor Charlemagne, who introduced 

 the subject into his capitttlaries, commanding gardens to be formed 

 throughout his dominions, and prescribing the very plants which were 

 to be cultivated therein : and considering the state of learning in those 

 days, it must be admitted that the list, short as it is, was prepaied 

 with good judgment ; for it was made to contain the' most useful 

 plants then known for diet or medicine, as well as the favourite orna- 

 mental flowers of the Romans. * The reader of the present day may be 

 amused at the list of what was thought' in ' the 8th century deserving 

 of an imperial edict, at a time when: no one had heard of a garden 

 except within the walls of a castle or a monastery (Walafridi Strabi 

 Ilurtidiis) : Roses, lilies, fenugreek, costtnary (Cottiu), sage, rue, 

 southernwood, melons, gourds ((JucurbiUe), water melons (Peponet), 

 kidney beans, cummin, rosemary, caroway, lentils, squills (?), gladiolus, 

 tarragon, cucumbers (Coloqmntida), heliotrope, (Ammi majuf, A< '.-m 

 aiiyuiti/ulium), lettuce, nigella saliva, rocket (Sruca), nasturtium, dock, 



