453 



GOVERNMENT. 



GRACE. 



454 



of the eye (dependent on the state of the constitution), which differ in 

 some respects from inflammation of the same parts arising from other 

 causes. The external proper tunics, particularly the sclerotica, may 

 be affected in the gouty ; though in this case the iris generally partici- 

 pates in the inflammation. The sclerotica and conjunctiva may how- 

 ever be attacked without the iris in gouty persons ; this affection is 

 then similar to that modification of external ophthalmia which occurs 

 more frequently from exposure to cold in persons who suffer from 

 rheumatism, and is denominated rheumatic ophthalmia. [RHEUMATISM.] 

 Sometimes gouty inflammation of the sclerotica IB accompanied with 

 an erysipelatous form of inflammation of the conjunctiva. Beer has 

 seen this follow the suppression of gout in the feet by cold. 



Inflammation of the iris (arthritic iritis) is a much more common 

 affection than the last in gouty persons, and is usually of an acute 

 character. It commences with uneasy sensations in the eye, which 

 are followed by pain about the orbit, forehead, and side of the head, 

 and lastly in the eye itself. Redness of the sclerotica comes on, which 

 is particularly seen round the cornea ; attended with watering of the 

 eye, and intolerance of light. The iris soon becomes dull and dis- 

 coloured, the pupil is contracted, and fixed at one or more points to 

 the capsule of the lens. It has been observed that the red zone round 

 the cornea is less bright in this than in other forms of iritis [IRITIS] ; 

 and, as in rheumatic ophthalmia, does not quite extend to the cornea, 

 but leaves a narrow white ring between them. This form of iritis 

 often returns again and again, the eye recovering almost completely 

 after repeated, attacks. The iris however often becomes attached to 

 the capsule of the lens by whitish adhesions, though without causing 

 much injury to vision. Mr. Lawrence says that gouty inflammation, 

 when severe and long-continued, sometimes causes complete disorgani- 

 , with puckering, and tubercular projection of the iris, and ex- 

 tinction of sight. When arthritic iritis occurs in a person of plethoric 

 habit, we must bleed and adopt general antiphlogistic treatment. 

 Colchicum may also be given with advantage. Mercury seems to do 

 more harm than good in this affection. The recurrence of the disease 

 must be prevented by such means as remove the gouty disposition. 



Besides the affections which we have described, persons of a gouty 

 constitution are sometimes attacked with more extensive inflammation 

 of the eye, affecting the internal parts of the globe generally ; that is, 

 the choroid membrane, iris, retina, vitreous humour, lens and its cap- 

 nnd secondarily involving the sclerotica and cornea. It generally 

 ends in loss of sight, with a dilated pupil and opaque lens ; but in 

 some cases the latter change does not take place, and a green dis- 

 coloration of the pupil remains : in this case, Mr. Lawrencejcalls the 

 affection acute ylaucoma. Arthritic inflammation of the internal tunics 

 in a much more serious disease than gouty iritis, and almost invariably 

 ys sight. It is attended with great suffering ; there is severe 

 burning pain, which extends to the face and side of the head ; and the 

 -'.If feels distended, or swelled. There ia redness of the sclerotica 

 and conjunctiva ; dulness of the cornea and iris ; the pupillary margin 

 of the latter is turned backwards, and the opening itself dilated and 

 fixed. The lens becomes opaque, and often of a greenish colour, and 

 is pushed forward into the dilated pupil ; the eye loses its brilliancy 

 and looks dead. The sight is lost at an early period of the disease. 

 This disorder generally affects both the eyes in succession, and the 

 most energetic treatment has hardly any effect upon it. Loss of blood, 

 ' her active measures, must be resorted to in the first stage of the 

 m. This disease is generally seen in elderly persons of full habit, 

 with bloated red faces which are owing to indulgence in the pleasures 

 of the table. These affections of the eye are sometimes due to rheu- 

 matic states of the system, which differ essentially from those of gout. 

 [UIIF.UMATISM.] 



GOVERNMENT Is a word used in common speech in more than 

 one sense. 1. It denotes the act of gorerniny, as when we speak of 

 " the business of government." 2. Thvpertons who govern are, as often 

 as not, called " the government ; " and we thus speak of " the French 

 government," " the Russian government," &c. 3. The word " govern- 

 ment" is used elliptically for the phrase form nf government, as when 

 we speak of " a monarchical, aristocratical, or republican government ;" 

 i " the English or French government," meaning thereby 

 tli" English or French form of government, or (changing the phrase) 

 the English or French constitution. 



The science of government, or the science which relates to the 

 government, is more commonly called the science of legis- 

 So the art which flows from this science, or the art of govern- 

 called the art of legislation. In accordance, then, with the 

 i on phraseology, we shall now dismiss this first of the two sciences, 

 and together with it that sense of the word " government " in which it 

 signifies the act of governing ; reserving them for treatment under the 

 I.ATIOX. In the present article we shall concern ourselves 

 -ively with that sense of the word "government" in which it 

 stands for the phrase " form of government," confining ourselves to an 

 '>n of the various forms of government, 

 'rnment consists either of one person or of more than one. 

 \S IK ii it comists of one person only, the appropriate name for the 

 f.irui iii ' government would be monarchy. But we shall see hereafter 

 that this name is generally, in common speech, fantastically bestowed 

 on a particular class of governments of more than one ; while a govern- 

 ment of one only is called by the names of abtolute monarchy, dapotitm, 



and tyranny. Of these three names, the last two may be objected to 

 as names, because they always imply disapprobation, or because they 

 are not only names, but also (to employ Mr. Bentham's phraseology) 

 words dyslogistic. But the essence of this form of government is the 

 complete dependence of the governed on the will of one person, which 

 is well expressed by the terms despotism and tyranny ; and the sense 

 of disapprobation which hangs about these terms, or their dyslogistic 

 character, is to be traced to the accidental circumstance of the conju- 

 gate terms despotic and tyrannical being commonly used to describe 

 other forms of government, in which the arbitrary conduct of the 

 jovernors resembles that of the generality of despots or tyrants. 



2. A government of more than one may either consist of one homo- 

 geneous body, or (changing the phrase) of one body all whose members 

 are appointed in the same way, or it may be mixed, compound, or 

 consist of heterogeneous parts. 



When the members of the one governing body, if hereditary, are a 

 decided minority of the state, or, if deriving their powers from without 

 their own body, they so derive them from a portion of the state which 

 is yet a decided minority, the government is called by the names 

 aristocracy and oligarchy. There is a difference in the use of these two 

 terms which it is impossible to mark exactly. But it may be said 

 roughly that the term oligarchy is used where the minority is very 

 small, and the term aristocracy where it is not. The latter term also 

 would be always employed where the members of the governing body 

 derive then- powers from without, or where the body is elective. 



When, again, the members of the one governing body either them- 

 selves constitute, or derive their powers from, a portion of the state 

 which is a decided majority, the government is called a democracy. 



3. Before proceeding any further with that series of divisions, in 

 which we have now taken two steps, we may remark that the three 

 forms of government of which we have now spoken namely, absolute 

 monarchy or despotism, aristocracy or oligarchy, and democracy are 

 commonly called (as being governments of one person, or of one homo- 

 geneous body) pure forms of government, in contradistinction to the 

 mixed forms which yet remain to be considered. The division of forms 

 of government into pure and mixed is a complete division, which the 

 common division into monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, is not. 



4. A mixed form of government is one compounded of the whole or 

 of any two of the three elements which exist separately in the three 

 pure forma of government, and also of individuals or bodies deriving 

 their powers from different portions of the state, even though each of 

 these different portions is a decided majority of the state. It is not 

 necessary to enumerate all the mixed forms of government which arise 

 from all the possible combinations. Besides that all the possible com- 

 binations may be easily seen, some of them produce forms of govern- 

 ment which have never existed, and which consequently are no objects 

 of interest. It will be sufficient, then, to speak of those combinations, 

 or rather of those classes of combinations, with which men are familiar, 

 and for which common speech supplies names. 



The mixed forms of government which occur may be divided into 

 two classes, according as an hereditary chief does or does not enter into 

 their composition. 



Governments which contain an hereditary chief united either with 

 an aristocratic and a democratic body, or with an aristocratic body by 

 itself, or with a democratic body by itself, are generally called 

 monarchies. They are also called limited monarchies, as if to distinguish 

 them from the governments of one only, to which, as we have said, the 

 name monarchy more appropriately belongs, but to which, without the 

 epithet absolute being prefixed, it is seldom or never applied. 



As regards the governments of which an hereditary chief forms no 

 part, it will be convenient to observe at the beginning, that the combi- 

 nations of an elective chief with one or more democratic bodies are the 

 only combinations which possess any interest for men ; if, indeed, 

 judging from the past, we may not also say that they are the only ones 

 which are practicable. And having premised this, we may say that the 

 governments into the composition of which an hereditary chief does 

 not enter are generally called republics, or i , uments 



(the relation of the democratic body or bodies in the government to 

 the portion or portions of the state that appoint them being known by 

 the name representation), or, again, pure representative governments, as 

 if to distinguish these from the forms of government in which a demo- 

 cratic body ia united either with an hereditary chief and aristocratic 

 body together, or with either of these by itself. 



It is scarcely necessary for the objects of a Cyclopedia, which 

 seeks to collect facts rather than to advance opinions, to enter upon the 

 question of which is the best form of government. 



GRACE, DAYS OF. [BILL OF EXCHANOI-:.] 



GRACE. This word is frequently used in the Scriptures to denote 

 in general the favour and love of God towards mankind, and also more 

 particularly as manifested in th gift of his son Jesus Christ. (2 Cor. 

 viiu 9.) It is also employed to designate that degree of divine in- 

 fluence upon the mind which enables an individual to believe in the 

 Gospel. Grace is sometimes used in opposition to the law, and to 

 < the happy condition of those who experience its benefits (Gal. 

 v. 4, 6). Also the benefits themselves, or the gifts of the Holy Spirit 

 (John i. 14, 16). Some theologians maintain that there arc two kinds 

 of grace, which they designate as common and special ; the former 

 consisting in such divine influences as operate beneficially upon the 



