HISTORY. 



HISTORY. 



690 



such special history, then, is viewed by us, though often unconsciously, 

 as nothing more than an exhibition of the progress and perfecting of 

 certain elements or ingredients which help to make up that entirety 

 which is called society, a word which expresses an aggregate of human 

 beings and the infinite relations which unite them. 



Another example of history in a limited sense, and one which brings 

 us a step nearer to a proper conception of the subject, is the life of an 

 individual. That branch of the historical art which treats of the life 

 of an individual has long since obtained the specific name of biography. 

 The reason why this species of composition has always given so much 

 pleasure, and often conveyed so much instruction, is clear. To desire 

 to know the past, to ascertain how that which now is became what it is, 

 and the successive steps of its development, is an active principle in 

 our intellectual and moral composition. It is this which stimulates 

 the geologist to his minute investigations into the phenomena which 

 present themselves on the surface of this globe. He labours, if not 

 with the hope of finally attaining a complete view of the successive 

 stages which have determined the actual state of things, yet with the 

 reasonable certainty of learning something, and of being rewarded by a 

 more exact and comprehensive view of the whole present condition of 

 the earth. Such is the interest which some few individuals can create 

 for themselves in branches of investigation which to mankind in general 

 are distasteful or repulsive. But everything which concerns a human 

 being excites the universal sympathies of mankind ; and when we hear 

 of those who have greatly dared or suffered, or those who by their 

 talents and virtues have been the benefactors of mankind, or by their 

 vices have inflicted misery on thousands of their own and succeeding 

 generations, we desire to know all the minutest circumstances of the 

 parentage, education, and life of such individuals. We desire to know 

 how they finally became possessed of that character which distinguishes 

 them from other men, and how they finally accomplished that for which 

 then- names are remembered. The history of an individual is so far 

 like the history of a nation, that it involves a progress from a beginning 

 to a certain definite point ; and though the life of an individual cannot 

 be viewed detached from that of his age and country, it possesses for 

 all the purposes of instruction a sufficient analogy to the life of a 

 nation. The commencement of the national life is generally hidden in 

 the obscurity and the meanness of its origin ; its termination, also, is 

 not marked by any event so distinct as that of an individual death, but 

 its condition at any one state, like that of an individual, is to be deduced 

 only from a full comprehension of all the preceding circumstances of its 

 existence. 



We may then conclude that the history of any nation is a statement 

 in chronological order of the various actions and events by which the 

 society which constitutes that nation has attained and is in its actual 

 state ; meaning by its actual state (so far as such a term is capable of 

 definition), its aggregate means of happiness. But though such a state- 

 ment as we have just mentioned of actions and events, when they are 

 judiciously arranged, will of itself indicate the general principles which 

 from time to time have more or less affected the condition of society, 

 the purpose of the historian is distinguished from the labour of the 

 annalist by the philosophical character which he gives to his work. It 

 is true that history, even thus viewed, may be written by one man 

 more particularly with reference to one kind of actions and events, and 

 by another man more particularly with reference to another kind ; but 

 as the subject of history is the progressive development of society, the 

 historian who best seizes on those things which at each stage charac- 

 terise this progress, will approach nearest to giving his work a real 

 philosophical character. The religion, the positive morality, the legis- 

 lation, the education, and the domestic habits of a people, are matters 

 which intimately affect the happiness of a nation. Their progress in 

 the mechanical or other arts is not to be overlooked, for their material 

 prosperity largely influences their moral condition. While, then, the 

 philosophic historian, in tracing the progress of any given society from 

 its origin to its development, omits no event in his series that shall be 

 necessary to link the present with the past, he more particularly 

 directs his attention to the consideration of those civil and religious 

 institutions, and to those popular notions of right and wrong, of virtue 

 and vice, which lie at the bottom of every society that has existed or 

 does exist, however disguised or obscured by the structure which has 

 been reared upon them. To trace to their origin, and to view in their 

 simplest forms, these elements of society, to seize with precision and 

 completeness their characteristics and their differences, to follow 

 them in the progress of their development and modification, both as 

 influencing and being influenced by the new elements which from time 

 to time enter into the composition of society, and so to show at each 

 stage of its progress, not only the condition of society, but the causes 

 which determine such condition, such may be called a philosophic 

 exhibition of history, or, in other words, a determination of the general 

 principles which govern any given society, and the consequences which 

 flow from them. 



As thw determination of general principles and of their effects forms 

 the scientific part of the subject of history, so the mode of treating and 

 exhibiting such a subject is the artistic part. No exact rules can be 

 laid down for the treatment of history as a branch of art. It may be 

 simply said that while the main object is to instruct, it is alo an object 

 to please, independent of the pleasure given by the mere communica- 

 tion of knowledge ; that out of the infinite number of events which 



ARTS AKD SCI. DIV. TOL. IT. 



mark the progress of society, a few are often sufficient for the purpose 

 of the historian, and that in the selection of the most appropriate 

 he will show his judgment and skill ; that while he clearly points out 

 those great principles which have had most influence on the condition 

 of society, he will not overload his work with reflections which the 

 matter will suggest to the reader ; and he will often not do more than 

 put him in the way of following out a train of thought. His art will 

 often teach him to conceal his purpose of instruction, when his work 

 will not be prejudiced by his apparent forgetfuluess of the dignity of 

 his subject. 



To enumerate among the historian's qualifications those of industry, 

 integrity, and sound knowledge, or to detail all the qualifications for 

 executing his task in the best possible manner, would be superfluous, 

 if not impertinent. We will, instead of this, briefly consider the value 

 of his labours when complete, and the advantage which his readers 

 will derive from a careful perusal of his work and an examination of 

 the original sources. 



It is a common remark that all history is uncertain, and if the 

 remark were true to the full extent, there would be little use in 

 attempting to show the value of that which cannot be known with 

 certainty. But though many events, or rather the circumstances of 

 such events, are uncertain, the most valuable part of history rests upon 

 monuments which have no uncertainty in their character. The 

 positive institutions of every civilised country, its laws and its 

 literature, are facts recorded, which are rich in instruction, independent 

 of their being evidence of an infinite number of other facts of which 

 they are conclusive proof. 



The study of these monuments, whether prosecuted under the 

 guidance of a historian who has used them in the construction of his 

 work, or followed out by individuals according to their own judgment 

 and mainly with reference to some special branch of inquiry, is one of 

 the noblest subjects that can engage our attention. Such a study aim* 

 at the philosophical [exposition of what now is, by reference to what 

 has led to it : it shows what principles lie at the roots of our social 

 system, what they once were, how they have been modified, and what 

 they now are. Knowing what each thing now is, and how it came to 

 be what it is, we are better enabled to form a conjecture of what it 

 will be, and how we may best fashion it to our purposes. Thus, we 

 learn in what circumstances change may be made with advantage ; 

 and knowing, from the experience which history teaches, that changes 

 in our social relations become necessary in the course of time, and can 

 neither be resisted with safety nor safely left to be directed by the 

 blind impulse of numbers, we learn how to introduce such changes 

 with the least chance of injury. But such a study, to be prosecuted 

 with success, must be the occupation of a' whole lif e : and if the active 

 man of business into whose hands legislation and administration have 

 been entrusted by choice, or fallen by perverse accident, has neither 

 leisure nor capacity for so extensive a survey, he ought to learn enough 

 to know his incapacity, and to ask counsel of those who are able to 

 give it. 



For him who would aspire to the high rank of a reformer of the 

 institutions and the laws of his country, a sound and comprehensive 

 knowledge of the leading notions contained in such institutions and 

 laws, and of their progressive development, is absolutely essential to 

 success in attempting any beneficial change. For in every case of 

 change, the question is not merely, what would be best in the forma- 

 tion of a new society (if such a thing as the formation of a new society 

 could for a moment be supposed), but the question is what is best in 

 the actual circumstances : and a full or a competent knowledge of 

 actual circumstances must from the very nature of things comprehend 

 a knowledge of previous circumstances. 



To those whose business it is to interpret the laws of their country, 

 whether in the way of giving advice or of judicial exposition, a full 

 knowledge of fundamental principles, whether expressed in written 

 laws or resting on recognised customs, is indispensable, in order to 

 enable them to solve the numerous difficulties which attend the 

 complete exposition of rights in a society which has existed for 

 centuries continually progressive in wealth and in numbers. Such an 

 active and living principle can alone maintain the study and the 

 exposition of law in a state of healthy vigour in the midst of the com- 

 plicated relations of modern society ; and such alone can form a sound 

 basis on which to construct a code, if ever the experiment should be 

 found advisable. 



What are the advantages of a complete historical study to the 

 philosopher, who would operate upon the popular opinion and impress 

 on his countrymen and the world those principles which he has 

 discovered, or believes, to be the best principles of human action ? 



While the mass, who are intolerant of the labour of inquiry and 

 reflection, or are deficient in the power of grasping general principles, 

 cling to every existing thing, and every traditional opinion, with the 

 instinct of self-preservation, those who possess, or think they possess 

 (which is the more common case) enlarged philosophical principles, 

 are apt to overlook the conditions which are necessary for their 

 practical application. Thus each actually existing school of philosophy 

 expects to accomplish everything in its own day : it despises the 

 knowledge of the past, and would anticipate the enlarged experience of 

 the future. But tho effort to unsettle what has long existed fails 

 before the inert resistance of accumulated ages, embodied in the 



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