INDETERMINATE. 



INDIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. 



place of the retiring Presbyterians being occupied by representatives 

 of those Presbyterians in England who hold the riewi of the Presby- 

 terian churches of Scotland. 



The Congregationalisu have numerous chapels in London itn<l in 

 Yarious parts of the country. The; hare also several institutions for 

 the education of their ministers. They still maintain the principle <>f 

 Independency ; are in general strongly opposed to a national establish- 

 ment whether Episcopal or Presbyterian ; and in doctrine vary, from 

 the high Calvinism of the Savoy Confession, which exhibits the 

 doctrines held by the Independents of the time of the Commonwealth, 

 to the most moderate form of orthodoxy. 



The number of Independent ministers is about the " name as the 

 number of chapels. The following is a list of the colleges and acade- 

 mies which are exclusively confined to the education of ministers for 

 the Congregationalist denomination. Some of them have valuable 

 endowments ; other* depend upon annual subscriptions for their 

 support: 



Western college, Plymouth, founded about 1752; number of stu- 

 dents, 21. 



Rotherham college, Maslwrough, Yorkshire, founded in 1756; num- 

 ber of students, 17. 



Brecon college, founded in 1760 ; number of students, 25. 



Cheshunt college, founded in 1768 ; number of students, 25. 



Airedale college, near Bradford, Yorkshire, founded in 1784; number 

 of students, 20. 



Hackney seminary, Middlesex, founded in 1796; number of stu- 

 dents, IS. 



Lancashire college, founded in 1806 ; number of students, 20. 



Spring Hill college, Horetey, Birmingham ; founded in 1838 ; number 

 of students, 21. 



New college, St. John's- wood, London, founded in 1850, by the 

 union of the Coward, Homerton, and Highbury colleges ; number of 

 students, 55. 



Connected with the Independent body there are also the Board of 

 Congregational Ministers of London and the vicinity; the Congre- 

 gational Board of Education, which maintains at Homerton a Normal 

 school for the training of day school teachers ; the Congregational 

 Library in Bloomfield Street, London; and other institutions of an 

 educational character. The Congregational Union of England and 

 Wales, and the Congregational Union of Scotland, are voluntary asso- 

 ciations of ministers and members of the Independent churches, which 

 hold assemblies or conferences yearly, or half yearly, as circumstances 

 may require, for mutual consultation ; but not claiming any ecclesi- 

 astical authority over tbeir members or churches. The managers and 

 missionaries of the London Missionary Society chiefly belong to the 

 Independent denomination. 



There are also a Theological Hall of Congregational Churches at 

 Edinburgh, founded in 1811 ; with 13 students; and a Presbyterian 

 college at Carmarthen, founded in 1719 ; with 23 students. 



The foregoing statistics are taken from the ' Congregational Year 

 Book,' for I860; which also states that there are 1600 churches of 

 this connexion in England, 636 in Wales, 147 in Scotland and the 

 Channel Islands, and 208 in the colonies. The ministers and mission- 

 aries throughout the British empire are estimated at 2734. In the 

 United States there are said to be 2369 Congregationalist churches* 

 and 2408 ministers. 



INDETERMINATE, a word which is mostly applied in mathe- 

 matics, not to the character of a magnitude, but of a problem. A 

 question is said to be indeterminate when it admits of an infinite 

 number of solutions : if the number of solutions, few or many, be 

 finite, the problem is sometimes, but rarely, called indeterminate. The 

 word indeterminate is also applied to the co-efficients of an assumed 

 form of expansion, and the investigation by which they are then found 

 is called the " method of indeterminate co-efficients." But when thus 

 used the word means nothing more than unknown, and the co- 

 efficient* are unknown or undetermined quantities. In the French 

 mathematical writings, the word intUtcrmint should sometimes be 

 translated by indeterminate, sometimes by arbitrary, and sometimes 

 by undetermined or unknown. 



IM>EX <)K REFRACTION. [LiOBT; REFRACTION.] 



ISOI .X i:\lMNKNT. [BntouiAL THEOREM ; POWEB.] 



INDIA, ARCHITECTURE UK. The architecture of India does 

 not extend- back to a very remote period. Not only are there no 

 architectural remains of the aboriginal races of Hindustan, but none 

 are known to exist which can be assigned to the Aryan occupants. The 

 earliest known buildings are of Buddhist origin, and are now con- 

 sidered by the best authorities to belong to the 3rd century B.C. When 

 Buddhism was replaced by Brahmanism as the dominant form of 

 religion, architecture underwent a considerable change; and it was 

 fain greatly modified by the Mohammedan invasion : but the original 

 Buddhistic type or character was never wholly lost. Minor varieties 

 and local modifications might easily be pointed out, but it will suffice 

 for a broad view of the architecture of India to regard it as Buddhistic, 

 Brahmanic, and Mohammedan. 



In looking at the architecture of India most inquirers have been 

 struck with its obvious affinity to that of Egypt ; and perhaps a com- 

 parison of some of the resemblances and distinctions existing between 

 Egyptian and Indian architecture, will facilitate our explanation of the 



Utter. In the article on Egyptian Architecture we referred rather to 

 points of difference and contrast between that style and the Grecian, 

 than to anything of positive similitude, they being separated from each 

 other by an exceedingly wide interval as to all that regards feeling and 

 taste. The Egyptian and Indian styles, on the contrary, seem to come 

 in contact with each other, agreeing most in those points wherein they 

 most differ from Grecian and from modern taste. If there existed no 

 other resemblance between the architecture of the two regions, there 

 would be a decidedly strung one in their hypogma, or subterraneous 

 cavern-structures hewn out of solid rock, works therefore more pro- 

 perly of exstruction than of construction, and to which, no doulii, 

 ought to be ascribed the chief peculiarities of the styles originating in 

 them, namely, extraordinary massiveness of bulk and prop- 

 coupled with no less singular capriciousness of form. Where the 

 forms are produced by cutting away instead of putting togeth> 

 building up, they may be shaped quite arbitrarily, moulded according 

 to fancy alone, because they still belong to one naturally coherent 

 mass : whereas were the same forma worked out of separate pieces of 

 material, not only would they frequently be at variance with security 

 and stability, but they would occasion sn enormous waste both of 

 material and labour ; the difference between the process of exstruction 

 and that of construction being, that in the former the solids are only 

 left after the operation of taking away, while in the latter they are 

 produced by what is built up. This, in our opinion, goes far towards 

 accounting for the various capricious, not to say unmeaning shapes we 

 meet with in many of the columns of the cavern-temples of India ; and 

 these again, account for the similar taste which was manifested in later 

 works of construction, a taste so remote from our own that the two 

 can hardly be said to have any sympathies in common. 



But in looking at even these rock-caves in detail, we find marked 

 distinctions as well as broad resemblances. Thus while the shafts of 

 the supporting columns have in the Egyptian examples no pedestals, 

 and scarcely anything amounting to a distinct base, and however 

 much the column itself may be ornamented, the capital is plainly 

 distinguishable from the other parts, in the Indian cave-temples the 

 columns often appear composed of fragments capriciously put together, 

 it being nearly impossible to determine where their pedestals terminate 

 and their shafts commence, or how much of these latter belong to the 

 capitals. Another circumstance to be noticed, as in this instance con- 

 stituting a striking point of difference from the practice of the 

 Egyptians, is, that the columns are placed so far apart, and so 

 stragglingly, as to resemble only occasional props, instead of a con- 

 tinued colonnade. In this respect however there appears to have been 

 no fixed system, for in other examples the columns are placed so 

 close together that parts of their capitals almost touch. Again the 

 Indian cave-temples present a marked difference from those of the 

 Egyptians in making in many of them an approximation to a regular 

 vaulted ceiling, while the Egyptian edifices are all covered with fiat 

 horizontal ceilings. On the other hand, the affinity between the 

 architectural taste of the two people is strongly marked by the preva- 

 lent use we observe, in the edifices of both, of colossal statues placed 

 against piers or walls, sometimes quite attached to or sculptured on 

 them ; and which may therefore be considered quite as much to 

 constitute part of the general embellishment, as to be specific objects 

 of worship. In both too we find frequent use of Caryatid figures, or 

 such as serve as columns ; and either entire figures or the upper parts 

 of them, both human and animal, enter abundantly into the. com- 

 position of Indian columns and capitals : in this latter respect, how- 

 ever, as in some others, the architecture of India has more resemblance 

 to that of Assyria than even to that of Egypt A strong similarity also 

 observable in the general disposition of the sacred buildings of the 

 Indians and Egyptians is, that the former, like the Utter, have 

 generally an open or unroofed court before them (sometimes formed 

 by clearing away the rock itaelf), leading to a vestibule, nave, and 

 sanctuary, progressively diminishing in size. Neither is it uncommon 

 in the excavated temples to meet with a series of small chambers along 

 <les, increasing their otherwise strong similarity of plan to those 

 of Egypt. The profusion of inscriptions and symbolic sculptures on 

 the walls affords also another characteristic point of resemblance. 



Again in looking at constructive works, or edifices erected above 

 ground, we can hardly avoid being struck by the prevalence of pyra- 

 midal mils mi and forms, as exhibited in. pagodas, or towers, however 

 great may be the difference in all except the general forms. One 

 broad distinction however is, that, however highly enriched many 

 Egyptian buildings may be, the mode of decoration employed in them 

 is not of a kind to interrupt the simplicity of the outline, it being 

 almost entirely /.. . x. ,<//. that is, merely enriching surfaces, as a 

 pattern wrought upon them would do ; whereas the Hindus seem 

 frequently to have affected the extreme both of massiveness and 

 lightness in the same design, attaching very slender and merely orna- 

 mental pillars to enormous piers, which ore the real supports. 



Buddhitt Ardtittcturt.Ot constructed Buddhist temples proper there 

 are unfortunately no examples left Topes or relique-houses, some of 

 them of Urge size, are indeed frequent : but the only true Buddhist 

 temples remaining in India are those excavated out of the solid rock. 

 These subterraneous edifices, combining often, like our own medieval 

 cathedrals and monastic establishments, a temple with an establish- 

 ment for the attendant ecclesiastics, occur in surprising numbers, and, 



