'Oil 



JAKUABT. 



JAPANNING. 



the nse for which they were condemned The Jesuits again appealed 

 to the pope, and a curioui question arose for the pope, which was, to 

 determine the exact meaning of an author who wat dead. Alexander 

 VII. however, by a new bull, in 1666, again condemned Jansenius'a 

 book as containing the five proposition* in the sense ascribed to them 

 by the former bull. Amauld and other learned men of Port-Royal 

 persisted in denying this assumed meaning; and thus they, and all 

 thorn who thought like them, received the appellation of JanscnUts. 

 A formulary was now drawn out conformable to the papal bull, which 

 all ecclesiastical persons in France were required to sign, on pain of 

 being suspended from their functions and offices. A great many 

 refused, and this occasioned a schism in the French church, which lasted 

 many years. Arnault), Pascal, Nicole, and other reputed Jansenists 

 attacked vehemently the corruption, discipline, and morality of the 

 church, and the Jesuits as supporters of that relaxation. [PASCAL, 

 in Bioo. Drv.] They also inculcated the necessity of mental rather 

 than outward or ceremonial devotion ; they promoted the knowledge 

 of the Scriptures among the people, and they encouraged general 

 education by numerous good works which came from the press of 

 Port- Royal. Meantime the controversy with Rome continued, although 

 Clement IX., in 1668, entered into a sort of compromise with the 

 French non-subscribing clergy, and Innocent XI. behaved with still 

 greater moderation towards them. But Father Quesnel's 'Moral 

 Observations on the New Testament,' published in 1698, added fuel to 

 the flame. Quesnel, being now considered at the head of the Janse- 

 nist party, was driven into exile ; Louis XIV., urged by his Jesuit 

 confessor, suppressed the monastery of Port-Royal in 1709 ; and Pope 

 Clement XI., in 1713, fulminated the bull ' Unigem'tus ' against 101 

 propositions of Father Quesnel's work. [CLEMENT XI. in Bioo. Drv.] 

 A fresh contention now arose ; a great part of the French clergy, many 

 of whom were not Jansenista, including Cardinal de Noailles, appealed 

 from the bull of the pope to a general council. The Regent d'Orleans 

 however insisted on unconditional submission to the bull, and the 

 recusants, or "appellants," were persecuted and driven into exile. 

 This persecution made many fanatics, and Jansenism became a name 

 for a set of visionaries and impostors. A certain Abbs' Paris, who had 

 been one of the appellants, and had died in 1727, was said to perform 

 miracles from his tomb. For an investigation of these' pretended 

 miracles, see Bishop Douglas's ' Criterion, or Miracles Examined.' 

 Next came a set of men called Convulsionnaires, who were seized with 

 spasms and ecstasies ; and others who were styled Flagellants, who 

 whipped themselves in honour of the Saint Abbtf Paris. This frenzy 

 lasted for years, and the government by harsh measures only increased 

 it; in fact it became mixed up with political discontent, and the 

 parliament of Paris took the part of the appellants. At last the 

 paroxysm subsided, having had the effect of discrediting the name of 

 Jansenism, which, as a sect, never afterwards revived, though its 

 opinions are still held by many. As the original Jansenista maintained 

 the absolute independence of the civil power on ecclesiastical authority, 

 and as even in ecclesiastical matters they were not favourable to the 

 supremacy of the Roman see, their principles had the effect of inducing 

 many of the French clergy to take the oath to the constitution of 1 791 ; 

 these were called " pretres insertnentes,' and were considered as 

 schismatics by the see of Rome. The Jansenist principles extended to 

 Italy, especially to Tuscany, where bishop Ricci and his partisans also 

 effected a temporary schism. 



JANUARY, the first month in our present Calendar, was also the 

 first month in the Roman Calendar. It was not the first month of the 

 year in this country till 1752, when the legislature, by an act passed 

 in the preceding year, altered the mode of reckoning time from the 

 Julian to the Gregorian style. At this time it was directed that the 

 legal year, which then commenced in some parts of this country in 

 March, and in others in January, should universally be deemed to 

 begin on the first of January. January derives its name from Janus. 

 Macrobius expressly says it was dedicated to him because from its 

 situation, it might be considered to be retrospective to the past, and 

 prospective to the opening year. It consists of thirty-one days, though 

 originally of only thirty days. The Anglo-Saxons called January 

 Wotf-nuautth, 



JANUS, one of the most ancient and highest of the Roman deities. 

 In mythological history, Janus is the earliest of the Italian kings, and 

 reigned in Latium, being contemporary with Saturn. He was succeeded 

 us and Faunus, who as well as himself, were worshipped by the 

 Etruscans and Romans. Janus, by some accounts, was the son of the 

 sun, and his attributes appear to connect him with sun-worship. He 

 is the porter of heaven : he opens the year, the first month being 

 named after him ; he presides over the seasons, whence he is sometimes 

 represented with four heads (Janus Quadrifrons), and his temples in 

 that capacity were built with four e^ual sides, but only one entrance. 

 Be presides overproduction. He is the keeper of earth, sea, and sky; 

 the guardian deity of gates, on which account he is commonly n pre- 

 sented with two faces, because every door looks two ways ; ami thus 

 he, the heavenly porter, can watch the east and west at once without 

 turning. (Ovid, Ka*t.,' i. 140.) He usually carries a key in bis left 

 hand and a staff in the other. (Ib., 99.) His temples at Home were 

 r 'us. In war time the gates of the principal one, that of Janus 

 guirinus, were always open; in peace they were closed to retain the 

 wars within (Ih., 124); but they were shut once only between the 



reign of Nuuia and that of Augustus. In reference to this attribute 

 he has the epithets of Clusius and Patuleius, the shutter and opener. 

 All his attributes, numerous and complicated as they are, appear to 

 have reference to this notion of opening and shutting, and arc explained, 

 by those who see in Janus a modification of the sun, in reference to 

 the phenomena of day and night, and the pervading vivifying \\-. 

 of the solar ray* ; though, as has been implied , the ancients also connected 

 his name with jaima, a door. As to the probable origin of the word 

 Janus, see the articles ARTEHIS, and the letter J. 



JAPANNING, is the art of pnlu,-ing a highly varnished si 

 on wood, metal, or other hard substance, sometimes of one 

 but more commonly figured and ornamented. The process has n 

 its name from that of the islands of Japan, whence articles so Tan 

 were first brought to Europe ; though the manufacture is also > 

 sively practised by the Chinese, Siamese, Birmese, and other n 

 of the extreme east of Asia, among whom it was suggested mo,-' 

 bably by the possession of a tree, which affords with little prepa 

 a beautiful varnish, exceedingly well adapted for the purpo- 

 which hardens better than those prepared in Europe. 



The appearance of japanned work is as various as the taste and fancy 

 of the artists employed in it. Sometimes it is a plain black or red, 

 with a gilded or painted border ; or it is an imitation of mar) >!>.< -i tine 

 grained or rare wood, or of tortoiaeshell ; sometimes a ill .!,. 

 which high finish, brilliant colour, and showy patterns are more sought 

 than good design ; and occasionally fine copperplate engravings are 

 applied to a japanned surface. In all cases the work is highly polished 

 and varnished. Japanning is applied to ladies' work-boxes and work- 

 tables, toilet-boxes, cabinets, tea-caddies, fire-screens, teo-traya, bread- 

 baskets, snuffers and trays, candlesticks, and a variety of other articles. 

 A good deal of common wood-painting is also called japanning ; liut 

 this differs from the more ordinary painter's work in little else than 

 in using turpentine instead of oil to mix the colours with. IV.Isteads, 

 dressing-tables, wash-hand-stands, bed-room chairs, and similar articles 

 of furniture are painted in this way. 



Three processes are usually required in japanning; laying the ground, 

 painting, and finishing. In addition to these processes, whrnevi T tin- 

 matter to be japanned is not sufficiently smooth to receive the varnish, 

 or when it is too soft or coarse, it is sometimes prepared Or primed 

 before any of the proper japanning processes are applied. Ti 

 paratory mixture or priming is composed of size and chalk; it is put 

 on with a brush like paint, and when perfectly dry it is brought to an 

 even surface by rubbing with rush, and is then smoothed by 

 rag. The best japanners, however, disapprove of the use of priming, 

 because its brittleness is very detrimental to the firmness of the 

 varnishes laid over it ; they use no substances which are of themselves 

 unfit for receiving a varnish, or which they are unable to bring to a 

 sufficiently smooth surface. For wood hard and fine enough to receive 

 a varnish without priming, and for metals, paper, and leather, the only 

 preparation necessary is a coat or two of varnish. In all thi - 

 cesses it is a rule to allow a day or two to intervene after every op ( -ra- 

 tion, that the work may be thoroughly dry. 



When the work has been prepared, the ground is laid on ; this is 

 either all of one colour, or marbled, or done in imitation of t/ 

 shell. The grounds are the ordinary pigments mixed with \ 

 laid on smoothly with a brush: when thoroughly dry they . 

 nished, and afterwards polished by rubbing with a rag and trip 

 rotten stone ; and, if the ground be white, with putty or stun 

 oil. The varnish used is either copal, seed lac, or made of the 

 aninii and mastic. The mode of laying the grounds varies (.- 

 That. which is now generally followed is to lay on one or two 

 coats of colour mixed with varnish, then to varnish throe or four times, 

 and afterwards to dry the work thoroughly in a stove. The < 

 are flake-white or white-lead, Prussian-blue, vermilion, Indian-red, 

 king's-yellow, verdigris, and lamp-black ; intermediate tints are made 

 by mixtures of these ; and an imitation of tortoiseshell is produced by 

 vermilion and a varnish of linseed-oil and umber. When a particularly 

 gorgeous appearance is desired, the ground may be laid entirely in 

 gold. This is produced by going over the work with japanner's gold 

 size, which, when dry enough to bear touching with the finger, but 

 still soft and clammy, is covered with gold-dust, applied on a piece of 

 soft wash-leather. Any other metallic dust may be laid on in the 

 some way. Many receipts are given for preparing the japanner's gold 

 size, but nearly all agree in making linseed-oil and gum animi the basis 

 of the composition. A curious and very striking mode of laying the 

 ground, called the dip, was formerly much practised. It was done by 

 dropping small quantities of coloured varnish in a trough of water, 

 over the surface of which it immediately spread in curious and often 

 beautiful ramifications; into these the article was dipjw.l ; tin- colour 

 was thus transferred to the work, and when dried was varnished and 

 polished in the usual manner. 



The work when thoroughly dry will now be ready for painting. 

 Showim-Hrf and brilliancy are chiefly sought for in jap 

 bright colours with gold and bronze dust are lait,-. ly > ini'i , I II,, 

 colours ore tempered with oil or varnish, and the metallic p, 

 laid on with gold size. Copper-plate engravings or wood-cuts may also 

 be executed in japan work. In this process the engraving is first 

 printed off upon fine paper which has been previously prepared l>v .t 

 thick coat of isinglass or gum water. When the print is perfectly .irv . 



