403 r.Yi.i-v 



India ran; Unit their cargoes) t Calpontyn, and bar* them conveyed 

 by canal to Colombo. 



Th country being intersected by deep ravine*. often 

 and covered with thick jungle, the coinniunioatiuns are rendered 

 extremely difficult Under the Kandisn government the opening of 

 roads we* prohibited, and the psnsi were strictly guarded. Narrow 

 paths were made by which men on foot could pass singly, climbing 

 orer the rock. Mid through the thickoU In thai providing for the 

 defence of the country its improvement WM necessarily raUrded ; and 

 from the little interooum which subsisted with the maritime pro- 

 Tine**, the habiU and inititutione of the people were of the most 

 ample and primitive kind, exhibiting curious remain* of their social 

 condition in very remote ages. But linoe the occupation of the 

 couutry by the British many excellent carriage roadi hare been con- 

 traeted at a rait expense. One of the finest of theee U the main 

 road to Kandjr, a work of great magnitude, which hai been carried 

 through come difficult passes in the hilU, and connected by several 

 bridge*, the largeet of which, over the Maharelli Gangs, fuu been 

 already noticed. A turn of 10,0001. wai appropriated in 1853 for the 

 construction of an important line of road from Oampola to Yatten- 

 totte ; and the construction of new roads, a* well ai the maintenance 

 and repair of thoee already existing, constantly engage* the attention 

 of the authorities The gorernment outlay on road* for the year 

 1862 was 36,6iOi from the treasury, and 17,t5U from the road ordi- 

 nance. There are now about 8000 miles of road open, of which a 

 third has been added during the last ten years. That cirilisation 

 receive* a powerful impulse by the opening of communication', and 

 that it advance* in proportion to the facilities of commercial inter- 

 course, an fact* which bare been remarkably illustrated in Ceylon. 

 Road* being opened they were soon covered with the vehicles of 

 commerce, Bazaars and Tillages hare sprung up along the roads, and 

 the productions of Europe are sold in every Tillage. A mail coach 

 has been for some time established between Colombo and Randy. 



Otology and Mintraloyy. Primitive rocks in numerous varieties 

 constitute the principal formations of the island. Oranite and gneiss 

 are the more prevalent ; quartz, dolomite, hornblende, primitive 

 greenstone, and a few others occur less frequently. The varieties of 

 granite and gneiss which often pass into each other are very numerous. 

 Begular granite is not common, but it is met with at Point-de-Oalle. 

 Onrim is far more abundant than granite ; a beautiful kind is found 

 at Ainanapoora (7* 16' N., 80 SO' K.), which contains a very large 

 proportion of felspar. At Trinoomalee quartz occurs in veins and in 

 BBMMSI embedded in granite. Hornblende and primitive greenstone 

 are found on Adam's IVmk. Dolomite exist* largely In the interior, 

 and is used for making lime. It is in this rock that the nitre cares 

 are found. The more recent rocks occur in the level belt near the 

 sea. Fine-gnu'ned compact limestone is found in great abundance on 

 the northern extremity of the island. Along the remainder of the 

 coast sandstone generally prevails, lying in horizontal beds along the 

 beach, but seldom extending beyond it. 



Ceylon contains numerous useful minerals and many valuable 

 gems. Iron is very generally diffused. The black oxide of manga- 

 nese is found. Plumbago abounds, and is exported in considerable 

 quantities. Tin has been found ; copper exists, with quicksilver and 

 coal There are no leas than 22 cave* from which nitre, nitrate of 

 lime, and a small proportion of alum are obtained. The xulphate of 

 ma_n<via is found in only one cave, and according to Dr. Davy it is 

 equal to the best Epsom salts. Salt is found in natural deposits, and 

 is formed by artificial means in several parts of the maritime pro- 

 vinces, particularly in Mahagampattoo ; it yields a revenue of 40,0001 

 per annum. 



Of the gems of Ceylon those principally valued nro the ruby, the 

 cat's-eye, the sapphire, the amethyst, the topaz, the garnet, the cinna- 

 mon stone, the tnrmeline, the zircon or Matura diamond, and the 

 olden beryl. Among the King of Kandy's jewels (sold by auction in 

 London in 1820) was a beryl which measured two inches in diameter, 

 and cold for more than 4001. 



There are several hot springs in the island : five at Kannya, in the 

 neighbourhood of Trinoumalee, and two in the province of Uwa. The 

 former are resorted to by invalids suffering from rheumatic and cuta 

 Demi* disorders : at 7 A.M. the temperature of the air being 77 of 

 Fahrenheit, their heat varies from 86 to 107. The water U pure, 

 with the exception of the slightest trace of common salt and a little 

 carbonic acid gas and azote. The Uwa springs are more than 1000 

 feet above the aea, and hare a temperature of 76 and 86* respectively. 

 At Alootooowera there are two springs, the temperature of which is 

 anciently high to dress food. In 7 16' N. 1st, 81 20' E. long. 

 near the PaUpak river, there is a hot spring which constantly emits 



Ctimatt, The climate of Ceylon is principally influenced by the 

 two monsoons. The north-east monsoon prevails from November to 

 February, and the south-west monsoon from April to September. In 

 the Inlai'tujing months variable winds and calms prevail. The sea- 

 son* are however subject to fluctuation, the south-west wind being 

 generally most prevalent Sometimes indeed at Colombo thi* wind 

 How* for are month* together, and the north-west wind blows during 

 the months of December and January only. Local oircumstenon 

 modify the winds of the interior according to the distance from the 



C1TLON. 04 



east and west coast; thus, at Badulla, In Upper Ouvah, during the 

 sooths of June, July, and August, the wind is van* Lie, and for the 

 remaining nine months It blow* from the north-east. The heat i* not 

 so gnat as on the neighbouring coast of India, the sea-brae*** mode- 

 rating the temperature, and making the air more agreeable and 

 salubrious. At Colombo the mean daily variation of the temperature 

 does not exceed 8 degrees, and the annual range of the thermometer 

 is Cram 7 to 8f Fahrenheit. At Oalle the mean daily variation is 

 4 degrees, and the annual range from 70 to 87*. At Jaffnapatem 

 the mean daily variation is 6 degress, and the annual range, from 70 

 to 00*. At Trincoroalee the greatest daily variation U 17 degrees, 

 and the annual range from 744' to 1 f. At Kandy, 1467 feet above 

 the sea, the mean daily variation is 6 degrees, and the annual range 

 from o to 86 ; and at Newerra EUia, 6210 feet above the sea, the 

 mean daily variation is 11 degrees, and the annual range 8i," to 804*. 

 The eastern part of the island, which is open to the north-east mon- 

 soon, partakes of the hot and dry climate of the coast of CoromaadeL 

 The western division, which is open to the south-west monsoon, has 

 a climate like that of the Malabar coast, which is temperate and 

 humid. The north-east winds although accompanied by rain are 

 drier than thoee from the south-west, and the country over which 

 they blow baa an arid appearance as contrasted with the luxuriant 

 verdure of the southern and western districts, which continues during 

 the greater part of the year. The driest seasons are thoee which 

 occur between the range of the two monsoons, partaking slightly of 

 the influence of both. 



The climate and seasons of the northern and southern districts may 

 be thus strikingly contrasted : On one side of the island, and even 

 on one side of a mountain, the rain may fall in torrents, while on the 

 other the earth is parched and the herbage withered. The inhabitants 

 in one place may be securing themselves from inundations, while in 

 another they are carefully distributing the little water of former 

 seasons which is retained in their wells and tanks. 



The salubrity of Ceylon has been greatly increased of late years by 

 the extension of cultivation and the clearing and draining of jungle 

 laud, but very much remains to be accomplished. There can be 

 little doubt that were the island cleared and generally brought under 

 cultivation it would be as healthy as England. 



Soil, Atfriculiitrr, <tc. Quartxose gravel or sand, and felspatliir. 

 clay, mixed with oxide of iron, derived from the decomposition of the 

 prevailing rocks, generally compose the soil of Ceylon, which seldom 

 contains more than 3 per cent, of vegetable matter, while quartz 

 often constitutes nine-tenths of the whole. In the cinnamon gardens 

 at Colombo the soil is composed of pure and perfectly white quartcose 

 sand. A brown loam formed by the decomposition of gneiss and 

 granite, and a reddish loam reuniting from the decomposition of clay 

 iron-stone called 'cabook,' are the most productive soils, and the 

 quartzoae the least so. The soils in the elevated lands of Saffragam 

 and Lower Oiivab, and the granitic soils in the mountains above, arc 

 fertile. The soil of the northern division is sanely and calcareous. 

 Agriculture in all its branches is in a very backward condition. Not- 

 withstanding all the ad vantages of Ceylon in variety of soil, graduations 

 of temperature, and adaptability of climate, the cultivation of rice 

 may be said to be the only successful tillage of the natives. Tet it is 

 impossible to foresee the extent to which the productions of nearly 

 every other country might be domesticated and extended throughout 

 this island. Agriculture nourishes most among the Jamul population 

 of the north. At Jaffna every cultivated spot is securely fenced ; 

 there is one well or more in every field, and by incessant watering the 

 farmers succeed in obtaining a third harvest in each year. For home 

 consumption they grow an innumerable variety of fruit and vegetables 

 almost unknown to the rest of the island ; and for trade and export, 

 in addition to their great staple, tobacco, which is the finest in the 

 east, they produce grain of all kinds and curry stuff*, especially onions 

 and chillies, for shipment to India and the coast of Ceylon. 



Among the trees indigenous to the island cinnamon, of which 

 Ceylon may be said to have the monopoly, is the principal ; but the 

 cocoa-nut tree is the most important to the island. The cocoa-nut 

 contributes largely to the subsistence of the people, and when the 

 grain crops fail, or are destroyed by inundation, averts much of the 

 misery of so serious a calamity. The leaves, each 12 or 13 feet long 

 a.i.l :i'feet broad, ore excellent food for elephants, and are plaited 

 into ' cadjans ' and ' cusingoes ' for thatching bouses. They are also 

 wrought into brooms, and ' ohools,' or torches for traveller*. The 

 sap, called ' toddy,' is extracted and used as a beverage in its natural 

 state, and converted by distillation into arack. Vinegar is also made 

 from this sap, and by boiling, a coarse sugar called jaggery is form, d 

 from it The kernel of the nut is used in culinary purposes ; but the 

 principal part is converted into 'eopperab,' by being dried in the sun, 

 and in this state is transferred to the oil-press. The refuse oil-cake, 

 called ' poonat,' furuinhes good food for poultry and pig*. The shells 

 of the nut are formed into goblets, ladles, and other domestic utensils ; 

 and from the capsule cordsge of all kinds, from the smallest yarn to a 

 ship's cable, is manufactured. I (mini: the six yean preceding 1848 

 about 20,000 acres were surveyed and sold for cocoa-nut planting at 

 Hattiualoa and Jaffna; and at Cal|ntyn, on the western coast, equally 

 extensive tracts were in process of cultivation. When the addition 

 thus made within so short time is taken into consideration, along 



