Friedrich Engels, 

 German Socialist 



Engels, FRIEDRICH (1820-95). 

 German socialist writer. Born in 

 Barmen, Prussia, Nov. 28, 1820, 

 he lived in 

 London for 

 the last 25 

 years of his life 

 and was corre- 

 sponding sec- 

 retary of the 

 I n ternational 

 W o r king 

 Men's Associa- 

 tion. More 

 ^generally 

 known as the International, for 

 Italy, Spain, and Belgium, this 

 organization was formed in 1864 

 with the object of ending war and 

 subordinating capital to labour. 

 Engels was the friend of its moving 

 spirit, Karl Marx, with whom he 

 collaborated in the communist 

 manifesto of 1847. Engels' works 

 include The Condition of the 

 Working Classes in England, 1845; 

 Eng. trans, repr. 1920; and The 

 Origin of the Family, Private 

 Property and The State, 1 884. He 

 died in London, Aug. 5, 1 895. 



Enghien, Louis ANTOINE HENRI 

 DE BOURBON CONDE, Due D'(1772- 

 1804). French noble. Born at 

 Chantilly, Aug. 2, 1772, he entered 

 the army in 1788. In 1792 he held 

 a command in the royalist army 

 raised by his grandfather, the 

 Prince de Conde, fighting against 

 the republicans until the peace of 

 Luneville, 1801. In 1804 he was 

 falsely accused of having taken 

 part in the Cadoudal-Pichegru 

 conspiracy against Napoleon, was 

 seized in the neutral territory of 

 Baden, hurried to Paris, and, after 

 a mock court-martial, was shot at 

 Vincennes, March 21, 1804. The 

 murder of the due d' Enghien, a 

 crime from which Napoleon vainly 

 tried to exculpate himself in St. 

 Helena, occasioned the famous 

 saying of Fouche : " It was worse 

 than a crime ; it was a blunder." 

 See Napoleon ; consult also Corres- 

 pondance du due d'Enghien, etc., 

 ed. Boulay de la Meurthe, 1904-13. 

 Engine (Lat. ingenium, skill). 

 Generic name now given to a class 

 of machines for the conversion of 

 one form of energy to another. For- 

 merly a term used for a large 

 variety of mechanical appliances, as 

 beer-engine, water-engine, etc., its 

 present-day usage is confined 

 chiefly to the names of steam- 

 engine, gas-engines, and oil or in- 

 ternal combustion engines. 



In the sense of a mechanical con- 

 trivance the term engine was used 

 for a warlike appliance, and it was 

 in this connexion that the first en- 

 gine was ever suggested, by Nye, 

 the mathematician, who in The 

 Art of Gunnery, 1647, suggested 



the use of water suitably heated as 

 a propelling force for shot instead 

 of powder, followed in 1655 by the 

 marquess of Worcester's descrip- 

 tion of a steam-engine for raising a 

 column of water a height of 40 ft. 

 The conversion of heat energy into 

 mechanical energy by means of the 

 steam-engine turned inventors' 

 thoughts to the use of other sub- 

 stances besides water, and there 

 appeared the hot-air engine, and in 

 later years the gas-engine, oil- 

 engine, etc. The invention of the 

 internal combustion engine has had 

 an rnormous effect upon the pro- 

 gress of the world. See Air engine ; 

 Internal combustion engine; Oil 

 engine; Steam engine; also illus. 

 p. 1332. 



ENGINEERING 



Engineer, THE. London weekly 

 illustrated paper devoted to the 

 engineering profession. Established 

 Jan. 4, 1856, by Edward Healey, it 

 is the oldest engineering paper in 

 the United Kingdom. For many 

 years the property of the founder, 

 it is now owned by a private 

 limited company, most of the 

 shares in which are held by the 

 Healey family. For a few years 

 The Engineer was edited by Zerah 

 Colburn. He was succeeded by 

 Vaughan Pendred, who held the 

 post for about 40 years, and was 

 followed in 1905 by his son, Lough- 

 man Pendred. The editorial policy 

 has been consistently to depend 

 upon expert engineers and scientists 

 for contributions. 



ENGINEERING: A GENERAL SURVEY 



A. H. Gibson, D.Sc., Prof, ot Engineering, University College, Dundee 



This article serves as an introduction to those on engineering sub- 

 jects, e.g. Breakwater ; Bridge ; Docks ; Harbour, etc. See also 

 Hydraulics ; Railways, etc. 



Historically considered, engin- 

 eering is the earliest of the arts, 

 emerging in the first dawn of civili- 

 zation when the first tool was made 

 by man. 



Little is known as to the earliest 

 development of engineering know- 

 ledge. It must have been of a com- 

 paratively high order to render 

 possible the construction of the 

 monumental works of Egypt and 

 the East, and the priests of many of 

 the ancient religions probably had 

 an expert knowledge of some 

 branches of mechanics. The aque- 

 ducts and bridges built by the 

 Romans, and the remains of metal 

 pumps of the Roman period, show 

 that the principles of civil, me- 

 chanical, and hydraulic engineer- 

 ing were well understood before the 

 Christian era. 



The Medieval Engineer 



In England the term engineer as 

 defining an occupation appears to 

 have dated from the 13th century. 

 In the wardrobe account of Edward 

 I (1300) occurs a statement of 

 sums paid to engineers for military 

 artificer's work, while in 1344 the 

 army records have a note of the 

 number of engineers borne on the 

 strength of the ordnance. The duty 

 of such engineers was, not only to 

 direct warlike engines and weapons, 

 a duty afterwards delegated to the 

 artillery, but also to undertake the 

 design and construction of fortifi- 

 cations, roads, bridges, machinery, 

 and other works of militaryJBervice. 



About the 12th century public 

 attention in France became di- 

 rected to the internal communica- 

 tions of the country, and an asso- 

 ciation was formed under the name 

 of the Freres Pontiers with the 

 main object of building bridges. 



The association was extended 

 throughout Europe, and built a 

 large number of important works, 

 including the first stone London 

 Bridge. This is perhaps the earliest 

 example of a definite body devoting 

 itself to civil engineering works. 

 Early Civil Engineering 



The real birth of civil engineer- 

 ing in its modern sense, however, 

 dates from the beginning of the 

 17th century. At that time the 

 rivers of N. Italy, which had been 

 in use for navigation and regu- 

 lated for irrigation from early 

 times, appear to have relapsed 

 into a bad state of order, with the 

 result that many disastrous inun- 

 dations took place. To prevent 

 this, the most learned scientific 

 men of the day were called into 

 consultation, which led to a series 

 of valuable studies and experi- 

 ments. A class of practitioners 

 was called into existence capable of 

 dealing with hydraulic works and 

 with their necessary mechanical 

 arrangements, and the scope of 

 their work was gradually extended 

 to cover also the design and con- 

 struction of roads, bridges, docks, 

 workshops, and machinery in 

 general. In view of the fact that 

 the class of work undertaken was 

 analogous to that allotted to the 

 engineers of the military service, 

 the new profession adopted the title 

 of engineer, prefixing the word 

 civil to distinguish its members 

 from their military brethren. 



Probably the best definition is 

 that used by the Institution of 

 Civil Engineers which defines en- 

 gineering as "the art whereby the 

 great sources of power in nature 

 are converted, adapted, and applied 

 to the use and convenience of 



