FRANCE 



The term for which each Cham- 

 ber of Deputies is elected is four 

 years. Instead of there being two 

 parties, corresponding to Conser- 

 vatives and Liberals, there are a 

 number of groups. From the form 

 of the hall in which the deputies 

 originally sat the main divisions of 

 the Chamber are known as right, 

 right centre, left centre, left, ex- 

 treme left, and so on, those who 

 hold advanced opinions having 

 their places on the left of the 

 president and those whose views 

 are moderate or reactionary on 

 his right. Combinations of groups 

 are continually forming and dis- 

 solving for the purpose of passing 

 certain measures or driving minis- 

 ters out of office. Ministries are 

 seldom, therefore, long-lived. Nor 

 are they, as a rule, composed of 

 politicians agreed as to principles 

 or strengthened by party discipline. 

 The aim of a prime minister in 

 forming a cabinet is to include the 

 spokesmen of as many groups as 

 possible and thus to secure the 

 support of their members. There 

 is now no group opposed to the 

 republican form of government. 

 A few supporters of the monarchy 

 or the empire may be elected, but 

 have little immediate influence. 

 Powers of the President 



With the idea of preventing 

 their presidents from exercising 

 real power and so being tempted 

 to make themselves tyrants, the 

 French have made the office of 

 first citizen almost entirely orna- 

 mental. The president of the 

 republic is elected for seven years. 

 The electors are the senators and 

 deputies. They meet for the elec- 

 tions at Versailles. The president 

 can do nothing on his own au- 

 thority. Every decision he takes 

 must be countersigned by a 

 minister before it is put into opera- 

 tion. War cannot be declared 

 without the consent of both Senate 

 and Chamber, which bodies must 

 also approve of treaties with 

 foreign powers. The president has 

 theoretically the choice of ministers, 

 but in practice the Chamber dic- 

 tates to him as to who shall be asked 

 to form cabinets, and whoever is 

 asked to do so selects his colleagues. 

 The president receives 40,000 a 

 year, half of which is allowed for 

 the expenses of keeping up the 

 office. Another institution is the 

 Conseil d'Etat (council of state), a 

 body of high officials and experts 

 who assist in the details of ad- 

 ministration. 



Legal System 



The legal system separates civil 

 from criminal jurisdiction. Crimes 

 are dealt with by juges de paix 

 (justices of the peace) and police- 

 courts ; by correctional tribunals 



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English Miles 



CATTLE 



HORSES 



LEMONS 



LINEN 



OATS 



PLUMS 



RYE 



SHEEP 



SILK 



SUGAR 



WHEAT 



COAL 



IKON 



J?A \ 

 France. Map indicating the areas devoted to the principal industries and occupations 



which try persons charged with 

 more serious offences; by the 

 court of assizes, and by the courts 

 of appeal and cassation. Before an 

 accused person is brought before 

 the three judges who comprise a 

 correctional tribunal, the case is 

 inquired into by a juge ff instruc- 

 tion (examining magistrate). This 

 official does all he can to induce the 

 prisoner to admit guilt. 



Presumption of Guilt 

 The juge d* instruction has power 

 to order the release of a prisoner if 

 there does not seem to him to be evi- 

 dence enough to support a charge. 



to obtain convictions, for French 

 law presumes the guilt of anyone 

 in the dock until he can prove his 

 innocence. Women are allowed to 

 plead. All courts and prisons are in 

 charge of the minister of justice. 

 Those who are serving one year and 

 less occupy departmental prisons. 

 Those sentenced to hard labour, 

 and habitual offenders are sent to 

 the penal settlements New Cale- 

 donia and Guiana, or sometimes to 

 the Devil's Island. 



RELIGION AND EDUCATION. There 

 is in France no established religion. 

 It is a Roman Catholic country, 



In the court of assizes prisoners are and by far the greater number of 

 tried before juries of 12, which con- its inhabitants profess that faith. 



Since 1905 church and state have 



vict or acquit by a majority. The 

 court of cassation revises cases 

 which have been tried by juries and 

 deals only with points of law. The 

 courts of appeal rehear cases in 

 which juries have not pronounced 

 upon the evidence, and in which 

 appeal may be lodged, on the ground 

 that the decision of judges were not 

 in accordance with the facts. 



Civil cases, if the sums involved 

 are small, come before arrondisse- 

 ment courts ; tribunals of com- 

 merce, or courts of prud 1 homines 

 (experts) also deal with commercial 

 disputes. The courts of cassation 

 and appeal are also open to civil would not a 

 suitors. Speeches designed to affect and were ref- 

 the emotions of jurors, and even 

 judges, are not uncommon. It is 

 usual for the judges to side against 

 accused persons and do their best 



been separated. Actually the 

 changes made by the law of separa- 

 tion were not very great. Churches 

 were allowed to be taken over by 

 the ecclesiastical authorities, pen- 

 sions were granted to priests with 

 a certain length of service. Mass 

 continued to be performed as usual, 

 congregations were as large as be- 

 fore. The separation had a visible 

 effect, however, upon the religious 

 orders and communities (friars, 

 monks and nuns). It was required 

 of all these that they should apply 

 for legal authority to exist. Some 

 others applied 

 Of the 30,000 



men and 130,000 women who were 

 under vows a large number left 

 France ; many had their establish- 

 ments broken up. 



