PARMA 



1'iitti ..f ('..rrcggio. The -lut-f imliH 

 trie* of the city are connected u ah 

 print ing, ailk, cereal*, dairy j>ro 

 md cattle. 



I 'nimbly of Etruscan origin, 

 Parma was colonised by Rome, 



< . ami the Roman 

 IIVIT tin- I'iinua is still extant. lU 

 l>i-hiij>nr is tint mentioned A.D. 

 :7s. In |;i46 Parma was sold by 

 the Correggio family to that of 

 Visoonti. and was associated under 

 tli<- Sforzas with the duchy of 

 Milan until 1511. On June 29, 

 17:t4, the Austrians were defeated 

 here* by the French and Sardinians. 

 Pop. 54.600. 



Parma, DUCHY OF. Former in- 

 dependent state of Italy. Adherent 

 to the Guelph faction during the 

 Middle Ages, the city and ita 

 territories passed through many 

 hands before they were absorbed in 

 the papal possessions in 1512. In 

 1541 Pope Paul HI made his son, 

 Pier Luigi Farnese, duke of Parma 

 and Piacenza, and his descendants 

 held the title until 1731, when, with 

 the death of Antonio, 8th and last 

 Farnese duke, the duchy became 

 an apanage of the Spanish crown. 

 It was transferred to Austria in 

 1734, but reverted to Spain in 

 1748. In 1796 the French Revolu- 

 tionary armies occupied it for six 

 years, when Napoleon included it 

 in the kingdom of Etruria, 1802. 



The congress of Vienna, 1815, 

 welded Parma, Piacenza, and Guas- 

 talla into a grand duchy of Parma, 

 in which Napoleon's widow, Marie 

 Louise, was given a life interest. 

 On her death, 1847, the grand 

 duchy, consisting of the five provs. 

 of Borgo San Donnino, Valditaro, 

 Parma, Lunigiana, and Piacenza, 

 passed to Charles Louis, son of the 

 fast Spanish duke. Charles Louis, 

 a mere tool of Austria and governed 

 by Tom Ward, the English stable- 

 lad whom he had made prime 

 minister, fled at the revolution of 

 1848, and the following year abdi- 

 cated in favour of his son, Charles 

 III, who was assassinated in 1853. 

 He was succeeded by his son 

 Robert, who was deposed in 1860, 

 when the grand duchy became part 

 of the kingdom of Italy. At 

 that time the area was about 

 2,400 sq. m., and the pop. was 

 500,000. See Farnese; Italy. 



Parma, ALESSANDRO FARNESE, 

 3RD DUKE OF (1545-92). Italian 

 soldier and statesman. Born in 

 Rome, Aug. 27, 1545, Alessandro 

 was the son of Ottavio Farnese 

 (1520-86) and Margaret, natural 

 daughter of the emperor Charles 

 V, and spent his early years at 

 Brussels and Madrid. Under Don 

 John of Austria, he showed con- 

 spicuous courage at Lepanto, 1571, 

 and was dispatched to aid his 



_ 5OB7 _ 



straggle to maintain Spanish iupre- 

 macy in the Netherlands, 1077. 

 He succeeded Don John M gover- 

 nor-general in 

 1578, and by 

 astute d i p I o- 

 macy and skil- 

 ful generalship 

 succeeded in 

 recovering the 

 Walloon depen- 

 dcncies, his 

 hief exploit 



Antwerp, 1584-5. But Farnese 

 found his position imperilled by 

 strong Dutch hostility and by dis- 

 content among his own troops. 

 Nevertheless he succeeded in sav- 

 ing Paris from capture by Hi-nry 

 IV, 1590, and Rouen from the 

 Huguenots, 1591, but died at Arras 

 on Dec. 3, 1592. See Farnese. 



Parmenides (c. 540-460 B.C.). 

 Greek philosopher. A native of 

 Elea, he was the chief represen- 

 tative of the Eleatic school of 

 philosophy, founded by Xeno- 

 phancs. Whereas Heraclitus had 

 taught that everything was in a 

 state of flux or movement, and 

 that permanence was an illusion of 

 the senses, Parmenides taught the 

 opposite doctrine. All movement 

 and change, he said, were illusions, 

 and all things have existed, and 

 will exist, the same for ever. 



Parmenio (d. 330 B.C.). Mace- 

 donian soldier. He was second in 

 command to Alexander the Great 

 on his Persian campaigns, leading 

 the left wing in the three battles of 

 the Granicus, Issus, and Gau- 

 gamela. Subsequently he became 

 involved in a plot organized by his 

 son against Alexander, and was put 

 to death. 



Parmigiano (1504-40). Italian 

 painter. His name was Girolamo 

 Francesco Maria Mazzola, and he 

 was born Jan. 11, 1504, at Parma, 

 whence he was commonly called 

 II Parmigiano. The son and nephew 

 of painters, he was largely self- 

 taught, but his early work was 

 influenced by Correggio, and his 

 later by Raphael. In Rome, in 

 1 .">iM . he was commissioned by the 

 pope to paint a Circumcision for 

 the Vatican, but was driven from 

 the city by its invasion and sack 

 by the Constable do Bourbon. He 

 died in disgrace at Casal Maggiore, 

 Aug. 24, 1540. 



Parmoor, CHARLES ALFRED 

 CRIPPS, IST BARON (b. 1852). 

 British lawyer. Born Oct. 3, 1852, 

 and educated at Winchester and 

 New College, Oxford, he was called 

 to the bar at the Middle Temple, 

 1877, taking silk in 1890. He sat in 

 the House of Commons from 1895- 

 1914, with intervals, for various 



lit Baron Parmoor. 

 British lawyer 



MMfl 



PARNELL 



constituencies, and was knighted 

 in 1906. In 1914 he was made 

 a peer and a member of the 

 judicial com- 

 mittee of the 

 privy conn- 

 il. Chiefly an 

 ecclesiastical 

 lawyer, Cripps 

 was vicar- 

 general of 

 Canterbury. 

 He was lord 

 president of the 

 council in the 

 labour minis- 

 try, Jan.-Nov. 1924. 



Parnahyba. Town and river of 

 Brazil. The former, in the state of 

 Piauhy, stands on the river Parna- 

 hyba, 14 m. from its mouth. An 

 important river port, it exports 

 cattle, hides and other animal pro- 

 ducts, tobacco, cotton, and other 

 agricultural produce. Pop. 12,000. 

 The river rises in the Serra das 

 Mangabeiras, and flows N.N.E., 

 forming the boundary of the 

 states of Piauhy and Maranhao. 

 After a course of about 800 m., 400 

 m. of which are navigable by small 

 steamers, it discharges into the 

 Atlantic by a delta. 



Parnassians. Group of French 

 poets of the later 19th century. 

 The name is derived from Le 

 Parnasse Contemporain, a col- 

 lection of poems by many authors 

 published in 1866. Among the 

 contributors were the older poete 

 Leconte de Lisle, Th^ophile Gautier, 

 Th6odore de Banville, and Charles 

 Baudelaire. Other collections under 

 the same title appeared in 1869 and 

 1876. An offshoot of Romanticism, 

 the school, which was mainly lyri- 

 cal, eschewed all appeals but the 

 aesthetic. Falling into preciosity 

 and artificiality, they were suc- 

 ceeded by the Symbolists (q.v.). 



Parnassus. Mountain of Greece. 

 It is the highest peak, 8,069 ft. alt., 

 of a range in Phocis, ancient Greece, 

 lying N. of Delphi. Parnassus was 

 sacred to Apollo and the Muses, 

 and also to Dionysus. Immediately 

 above Delphi is the celebrated 

 Castalian spring. 



Parnell, CHARLES STEWART 

 (1846-91). Irish Nationalist. He 

 was born at Avondale, co. Wick- 

 low, June 27, 1846, of an English 

 family long settled as landowners 

 in Ireland, and was educated at 

 Magdalene College. Cambridge. In 

 1875 he entered Parliament as a 

 member of the small party of Irish 

 Home Rulers. 



Though a landlord, a Protestant, 

 and a man reserved and aloof 

 in manner, he exercised a com- 

 manding influence which trans- 

 formed nis party, small as it was, 

 into an instrument which came 



