REFLECTIONS 



is the angle of incidence ; the angle 

 the reflected ray makes with it is 

 the angle of reflection. The laws 

 of regular reflection from a square 

 are as follows: (1) The incident 

 ray, the normal to the surface, and 

 the reflected ray are all in the same 

 plane. (2) The angle of reflection 

 is equal to the angle of incidence. 

 Without the phenomenon of re- 

 flection bodies not luminous in 

 themselves would be invisible. 

 See Optics ; Refraction. 



Reflections on the Revolution 

 in France. Short title of Burke's 

 Essay published in Nov., 1790. The 

 full title is Reflections on the Revo- 

 lution in France, and on the pro- 

 ceedings in certain societies in 

 London relative to that event. It 

 attracted much attention, and in a 

 few years 30,000 copies had been 

 sold. Its author was lauded by 

 George III, as well as by many of 

 humbler station. Burke un- 

 hesitatingly condemned the Revo- 

 lution. He denounced the injus- 

 tices and excesses committed in 

 France, and wrote the memorable 

 passage about Marie Antoinette's 

 beauty and misfortune. It was 

 answered by Thomas Paine's 

 Rights of Man and James Mackin- 

 tosh's Vindiciae Gallicae. 



Reflex Action . Muscular action 

 which is the result of an afferent 

 impulse, i.e. an impulse originating 

 in a stimulus external to the body 

 and conveyed by a nerve to a part 

 of the central nervous system, 

 which then sets in motion the 

 muscles necessary to produce the 

 action. For instance, if the skin 

 be pricked or touched with some- 

 thing hot, an impulse is carried by 

 the nerve which has been stimu- 

 lated to a nerve centre, and from 

 this another impulse is sent down 

 to the appropriate muscles, caus- 

 ing them to withdraw the limb 

 from the source of pain. 



Other instances of reflex action 

 are the watering of the eye and the 

 movements of the eyelids when a 

 speck of dust enters the eye ; the 

 contraction of the pupil when a 

 strong light falls upon it ; and the 

 pouring out of saliva or watering of 

 the mouth which occurs at the 

 smell or sight of food. A true re- 

 flex action is independent of the 

 will and may occur in states of un- 

 consciousness, as, for instance, the 

 drawing away of the leg if the sole 

 of a sleeping person be tickled. 

 Nerve centres through which reflex 

 actions are carried out exist in the 

 brain, the spinal cord, and the 

 sympathetic nervous system. See 

 Brain ; Nerve. 



Reform (Lat. re-, again ; for- 

 mare, to form). Literally, to restore 

 or form again. It is used for any 

 change which is in the direction of 



6528 



improvement, whether it is reform 

 of a church, a school, or a domestic 

 establishment. In politics it has 

 come to be used for the process of 

 changing, generally in the direction 

 of bettering, the condition of the 

 people or the constitution of a 

 country by constitutional means as 

 opposed to revolution, which uses 

 violent means. Reform is specially 

 associated with the progressive 

 parties, as in the old Liberal wateh- 

 word of peace, retrenchment, and 

 reform. See Liberal ; Politics ; 

 Radical ; Revolution. 



Reform Acts. In British 

 history, name given to the series of 

 Acts reforming parliamentary fran- 

 chise and the composition of parlia- 

 ment, and designed to secure an 

 adequate expression of the popular 

 will in government. Formally de- 

 scribed as Representation of the 

 People Acts, these measures are 

 the Acts of 1832, 1867, 1884-85, and 

 1918. In effect they have raised 

 the ratio of voters per 100 of popu- 

 lation from 3*3 after the first, to 

 15 '5 after the third, and to 48 '2 in 

 1918; and the House of Commons 

 from 658 members in 1832 to 670 

 in 1885, and 707 in 1918. 



For years before the introduc- 

 tion of Russell's first bill (March, 

 1831) a growing movement had 

 demanded drastic parliamentary 

 reform. The notorious constitu- 

 ency of Old Sarum returned two 

 members for its heap of ruins ; 

 Manchester and Birmingham, with 

 rapidly increasing industrial popu- 

 lations, were unrepresented. 



Russell's first bill was dropped in 

 April and, reintroduced, was re- 

 jected by the Lords, Sept. 21. In 

 Dec. he introduced a new bill 

 which passed the Commons in 

 March, 1832, but was rejected by 

 the Lords on May 7. Earl Grey 

 and his cabinet resigned, and public 

 feeling against the wreckers of the 

 expected reforms ran high. Backed 

 by the king's assurance of the 



Reflex Action. Method of produc- 

 ing the muscular action by striking 

 the leg just below the knee-cap 



REFORM ACTS 



creation of new peers to ensure 

 passage, the Whigs resumed power 

 and the bill passed on June 4. The 

 county franchise was given to 

 occupants of lands and tenements 

 at annual rent of not less than 50, 

 the borough franchise to occupants 

 of houses or shops of 10 yearly 

 value. Fifty-six English boroughs 

 were disfranchised, 30 had member- 

 ship reduced to one ; 22 boroughs 

 were created with -two members, 

 and 20 with one apiece. 



Abortive attempts at further 

 reforms were made by Russell, 

 1854, Disraeli, 1859, Palmerston, 

 1860, and Gladstone, 1866. But 

 in 1867 Disraeli carried through 

 the second Reform Bill. Borough 

 franchise was extended to all 

 householders rated for poor-relief, 

 and to lodgers occupying lodgings 

 of annual value 10 ; the county 

 vote to persons holding leasehold 

 and copyhold of 5, and to occu- 

 piers of 12 rateable value. This 

 increased the electorate from 

 1,353,000 to 2,243,000. Redis- 

 tributions were also effected, and 

 supplementary Acts for Scotland 

 and Ireland were passed in 1868. 



Gladstone's, or the third Reform 

 Act, was passed in 1884, followed 

 by a Redistribution of Seats Act in 

 1885. This measure added some 

 2 millions to the register. It 

 made uniform the householder and 

 lodger franchise throughout the 

 United Kingdom, created 33 new 

 boroughs, increased the representa- 

 tion of several large centres, and 

 gave Scotland 12 additional seats. 



But the Act of 1918 was perhaps 

 the most far-reaching, increasing 

 the electorate by some 8,000,000, 

 and admitting a measure of woman 

 suffrage to the extent of about 

 6,000,000. The franchise was given 

 to all men over 21 years with a six 

 months' residence qualification, and 

 to women over 30 years, who are 

 either local government electors 

 or the wives of such electors. No 

 elector could vote for more than two 

 constituencies, and all general 

 election polls must be held on the 

 same day. The redistribution of 

 seats added 31 to England, and 

 two each to Scotland, Ireland, and 

 Wales, university representation 

 (with a system of proportional re- 

 presentation) being increased to 15. 

 The basis was taken as one member 

 to every 70,000 of pop. in Great 

 Britain and (by separate Act) to 

 43,000 in Ireland. The total 

 electorate of the British Isles was 

 thus brought to a figure over 21 

 millions. The Government of Ire- 

 land Act, 1920, providing for two 

 separate parliaments, modified the 

 representation of Ireland under the 

 1918 Act. See Commons, House 

 of ; Home Rule ; Representation. 



