ROME 



entered Constantinople as emperor, 

 and re-established the old heathen 

 cults. On his death in the war 

 with Persia the soldiers raised to 

 the throne Jovian, who reinstated 

 the Christian religion. Jovian was 

 assassinated, and Valentinian I, 

 the son of a Pannonian peasant, 

 became Augustus, and bestowed 

 the same honour on his brother 

 Valens.. Valentinian established 

 himself at Milan, Valens at Con- 

 stantinople. Procopius, a trusted 

 officer of Julian, raised the stand- 

 ard of revolt against Valens in Con- 

 stantinople, 365, but lost his life in 

 the next year. Valentinian, on 

 the whole a strong general, and 

 successful for long against the bar- 

 barians, died on a campaign in 375. 

 Valens, while operating against the 

 Goths, suffered at Hadrianopolis a 

 terrible defeat, which forms a turn- 

 ing point in history, and lost his 

 life. His nephew Gratian assumed 

 as colleague a stout and successful 

 soldier, Theodosius. 



In 382 Gratian removed from 

 the Roman Senate-house the altar 

 of Victory, the last heathen symbol 

 that remained there. He was 

 treacherously captured and killed, 

 383, by an upstart emperor, 

 Maximus, in Gaul, where a Frank- 

 ish general, Arbogast, who had held 

 the real power for some years, 

 nominated Eugenius as emperor, 

 intending to rule through him. A 

 great struggle between forces from 

 the West, chiefly Franks and Gauls, 

 and the army of Theodosius from 

 the East, took place on the river 

 Frigidus, near Aquileia, where 

 Theodosius won a great victory and 

 Eugenius was killed ; Arbogast 

 committed suicide 388, and Val- 

 entinian resumed control of the 

 West, but met his death in 392. In 

 395, on Theodosius' s death, his son 

 Arcadius became ruler of the East ; 

 another son, Honorius, had been 

 declared Augustus in the West the 

 year before his father's death, with 

 Stilicho as his general. This in- 

 volved the real, though not nom- 

 inal, division of the Roman em- 

 pire into two empires. 



Domination of the Germans 



The consequences of this split are 

 obvious in Europe to this day. 

 Stilicho held the Gothic chief 

 Alaric in check for a while, but in 

 400 Alaric made his way into Italy; 

 however, in 402, Stilicho won over 

 him two great victories at Pollentia 

 and Verona. In 405 another bar- 

 barian, Radagaisus, penetrated 

 Italy, but he and his forces were 

 destroyed by Alaric. Gaul also at 

 this time was being ravaged by the 

 barbarians. But long ere this the 

 Germans had become the control- 

 ling element in the European do- 

 minions of Rome. Both military 



6686 



and civil services were controlled 

 by men of Germanic origin, and 

 large districts were peopled by 

 their kinsmen. 



Only a few more incidents in 

 the dying agony of the Western 

 empire remain to be mentioned. 

 By the end of the first quarter of 

 the 5th century the Goths had 

 overrun Italy and Gaul ; the 

 Franks and Alamanni held the 

 Rhine-lands , Vandals and Ger- 

 mans were in Spain , Vandals were 

 in Africa. In 439 they possessed 

 themselves of Carthage, the great 

 and brilliant stronghold of Roman 

 civilization there. Shortly after- 

 wards Attila led his hordes of Huns 

 to the plunder of the Eastern em- 

 pire. In 451 he reached Gaul, 

 where he suffered a tremendous de- 

 feat at the hands of Theodoric the 

 Visigoth, near Chalons. In 453 he 

 died in Rome, which had been 

 sacked by Alaric in 410, was plun- 

 dered by Vandals in 455, and 

 once more by Ricimer, a pure Ger- 

 man, who had been made com- 

 mander of the armies of the West. 

 Again and again he set up shadowy 

 emperors according to ancient 

 form, but was real raler himself. 



ROME 



The last titular emperor, named 

 by an irony of destiny Romulus 

 Augustulus, 476, was pensioned 

 by the barbaric leader Odoacer. 

 Europe had already been parcelled 

 out into barbaric kingdoms. 



Bibliography. History of Rome, 3 

 vols., B. G. Niebuhr, Eng. trans. 4th 

 ed. 1847-51 ; History of the Romans 

 under the Empire, 8 vols., C. Meri- 

 vale, new ed. 1865 ; History of 

 Rome, 5 vols., W. Ihno, Eng. trans. 

 1871-82 ; History of the Later 

 Roman Empire, 2 vols., J. B. Bury, 

 1889 ; History of Rome, 5 .vols., 

 T. Mommsen, Eng. trans. W. P. 

 Dickson, new ed. 1901 ; Ancient Le- 

 gends of Roman History, E. Pais, 

 Eng. trans. M. E. Cosenza, 1906 ; 

 Outlines of Roman History, H. F. 

 Pelham, 5th ed. 1909 ; The Roman 

 Republic, 3 vols., W. E. Hoitland. 

 1909 ; Provinces of the Roman Em- 

 pire, 2 vols., T. Mommsen, Eng. 

 trans. W. P. Dickson, new ed. 1909 ; 

 Characters and Events, of Roman 

 History from Caesar to Nero, G. 

 Ferrero, Eng. trans. F. L. Ferrero, 

 1909 ; Decline and Fall of the 

 Roman Empire, 7 vols., E. Gibbon, 

 ed. J. B. Bury, 1909-14; History 

 and Description of Roman Political 

 Institutions, F. F. Abbott, 3rd ed. 

 1911 ; The Municipalities of the 

 Roman Empire, J. S. Reid, 1913. 



ROME: ITS ART AND ARCHITECTURE 



H. Stuart-Jones, M.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History, Oxford 



In addition to the illustrations lierewiih, Roman art is illustrated 

 under a great number of headings throughout this work. These 

 include Aqueduct; Arch; Capitol; Colosseum; Forum; Pantheon; 

 S. ^Peter's and those on the cities where Roman remains exist, e.g. 

 Nimes; Praeneste ; and others. See also Art; Architecture; 

 Etruria; Numismatics; Pottery 



The Romans were not by nature 

 highly endowed with the artistic 

 faculty, and during the Republican 

 period, when they were engaged in 

 a perpetual struggle, they were, as 

 a rule, content to employ the 

 services of foreign artists, whether 

 Greek or Etruscan, in the erection 

 and adornment of their temples 

 and other buildings. Examples of 

 Roman craftmanship, such as the 

 cista or engraved casket made by 

 Novios Plautios, and found at 

 Praeneste, show a close adherence 

 to Greek models. 



We can, however, trace con- 

 nexion between Etruscan art 

 especially in the realism of its por- 

 traiture and thatwhichaf terwards 

 flourished in Rome. Again, even in 

 republican times, the art of the 

 Romans was closely wedded to 

 history. We possess a fragment of 

 an historical painting from the 

 Esquiline, which seems to repre- 

 sent episodes of the Samnite wars, 

 and reminds us of the traditions of 

 Fabius Pictor (the Painter), who 

 adorned the temple of Salus with 

 frescoes in 304 B.C., and of the 

 paintings carried in triumph by 

 successful generals. An impulse 



was given to the art of portraiture 

 by the practice of setting up waxen 

 busts of the more famous members 

 of the great families of Rome in the 

 atria, or courts of their houses. 

 These may have been at first de- 

 rived from death-masks, but in 

 time marble busts were substituted, 

 and by the last century of the Re- 

 public we find a flourishing school 

 of portraiture in existence. Caesar, 

 Pompey, and Cicero are all repre- 

 sented in extant busts. 



The enormous increase in wealth 

 due to the conquests of Rome and 

 the diffusion of Hellenic culture, 

 led to the collection of Greek 

 masterpieces, great numbers of 

 which were transported to Rome 

 by victorious generals, and to the 

 multiplication of copies for the 

 decoration of the palaces and villas 

 of those who could not acquire 

 originals ; and a school arose in 

 which, instead of direct copying, 

 adaptation of earlier Greek types 

 was practised. Its founder was 

 Pasiteles, a contemporary of Caesar. 



The establishment of Roman 

 supremacy in the Mediterranean 

 world naturally made the capita! a 

 centre of artistic production, and 



