AND COMMERCIAL ROUTES. I$I 



demand was may be gathered from the facts stated by Sanuto, 

 and adverted to above, as to the heavy export and import 

 duties levied by the Sultan, though (if our author be trusted) 

 the imports were absolute necessaries to Egypt, though the 

 course of trade might be advantageously diverted to its ancient 

 channels, though the Sultan absolutely prevented any Christians 

 from traversing his dominions, and though the Mohammedan 

 merchants were characterised at that time by the frauds 

 so well known to prevail among them at present. Sanuto 

 tells us that he had traversed, in his own person, the Eastern 

 route which he recommends, five times ; and it is singular that 

 in this time there seems to have been freer access to Mid Asia 

 than is accorded now. The Christian merchant visited, with 

 it would seem no extraordinary risk, and with of course the 

 means for successful traffic, regions which cannot be entered 

 now except in the most careful and cautious manner. No 

 European has for many years penetrated to Bokhara, or indeed 

 beyond the confines of Persia, unless in utter poverty, and 

 generally, unless in the guise of a dervish, and with the osten- 

 tatious profession of Islamism. Either the aggressions of 

 European policy or the fanaticism of Mohammedanism have 

 rendered the route so difficult, that any entry into what were 

 once the great highways of Eastern commerce and the channels 

 of communication with the Western world is impossible except 

 by force or fraud. 



The prosperity of the Italian republics increased with the 

 settlement of Europe, with the growth of wealth, and with 

 the general development of municipal law. It cannot be 

 doubted, that despite the incessant wars by which the Con- 

 tinent was afflicted during the Middle Ages, there was great 

 progress made in the period before me, and for long time 

 afterwards. Such progress, in the absence of any effective 

 expression of public opinion, invariably takes place when the 

 science of attack becomes more difficult than that of defence, 

 and the mass of the community can use the latter. With some 

 exceptions, European states had made considerable advances 



