OF NATURE. 575 



known to the unknown, from that which is visible to 

 that which is invisible, and constructs an artificial 

 picture or model in and through which the external 

 world can be mentally grasped and studied. 



But it took a long time before this was clearly 

 recognised by either naturalists or philosophers. The 

 thinker who in the middle of the century probably 

 represented the clearest views on the subject was, as I 

 mentioned above, Lotze himself. His interest, however, 

 did not lie in the direction of assisting the exact 

 sciences, 1 but rather in denning the correct position of 

 the biological sciences and in preparing the way for 

 an idealistic conception of things by showing the in- 

 sufficiency of all purely mechanical or materialistic 

 reasoning. In the meantime a great variety of interests 

 combined to effect that change in our fundamental 23. 



New criti- 



notions which has taken place in the course of the latter cism of 



fundamental 



half of the nineteenth century. Germany and England notions - 

 each made independent and original contributions ; 

 France, as we shall see, took up the subject much 

 later, but then likewise in an original spirit. 2 



To begin with this country : Mill had already in his 24. 



J. o. Mill. 



' Logic ' analysed some of the fundamental notions em- 



1 Lotze's earliest published tract, is significant of the age when he 

 his " inaugural dissertation," had wrote that his criticisms were as 



the title ' De futune Biologitc 

 principiis philosophicis.' 1838. 

 2 It should, however, not be over- 



little estimated at their true value 

 as were those of Lotze ten years 

 earlier in Germany. Both Lotze 



looked that Charles Kenouvier al- ; and Renouvier seem to have been 



ready in the first edition of his entirely unknown to Mill as well as 



' Essais de critique generate ' (1854- ! to Spencer, whose writings, through 



1864), and still more in the second their influence on followers a well 



edition (1875), gave a very clear as on opponents, effected a gradual 



analysis and criticism of the funda- clearance of first principles in this 



mental notions employed in the country. There is, however, no 



sciences of nature and mind, and it doubt that for a whole generation, 



