REFORM AND DEMOCRACY 63 



made its appearance. Huskisson, brought by 

 Canning to the presidency of the Board of 

 Trade, was deeply imbued with the doctrines 

 of Adam Smith as to keeping the hands of the 

 government off commerce and industry. The 

 ancient restrictions through which business was 

 parcelled out among particular groups and se 

 cured to them at all hazards, were incompat 

 ible with Huskisson s principles and were, more 

 over, at present working to the disadvantage of 

 the favored classes and producing the disturb 

 ances that were so significant signs of the times. 

 First, the shipping industry received Huskisson s 

 attention. The Navigation Laws had for a cen 

 tury and a half given monopolistic protection 

 to British merchant-vessels and had secured 

 for them a clear control of the carrying trade 

 of the world. The United States was now 

 contesting that control and was using in the 

 competition the same methods by which Great 

 Britain had secured it, namely, a monopolistic 

 protection of American shipping against all 

 foreign rivals. Parliament dropped in 1823 

 the rigidity of the old policy by authorizing the 

 government to suspend the application of the 

 laws through agreements with other govern 

 ments for reciprocal advantages. This was the 



