42 ETHICAL ASPECTS OF EVOLUTION 



gives rise, through many intermediate gradations, to the 

 nation, and the nation to the empire ; to the duties of 

 patriotism are added the still undefined and loosely recog 

 nized duties to humanity, or even to the whole of animate 

 nature. Throughout the process the great majority of the 

 claims that have been established against the individual 

 survive, and are neither merged nor relaxed. Similarly, 

 within the nation, we see the birth of political parties ; 

 of classes such as noble and plebeian, or an even more minute 

 subdivision into castes, or occupations, with distinct and 

 often opposed interests, such as the agricultural and mercan 

 tile, and, within the mercantile, of guilds and trades unions ; 

 each with its separate claim on the individual, running 

 concurrently with those of his family, of his country, and 

 of humanity at large. The concentration which is demanded 

 for the prosecution of great aims, becomes continually more 

 difficult with the increasing number of distractions ; failure 

 is more frequent, and success demands a greater expen 

 diture of moral force. The increase in social complexity, 

 and advance in knowledge, give rise to new and more 

 hateful forms of fraud, violence, and vice; and facilitate 

 at once their perpetration and the escape of the offenders 

 from punishment. As the temptations of a great city are 

 greater than those of the country, so also is the strength 

 of moral character which is required for their resistance. 



Enough has been put forward to show that the growth 

 has not been on one side only. It would indeed appear, 

 at a first glance, that the growth of moral evil has been 

 greatly preponderant. We may, however, be reassured 

 when we reflect that evil is usually exhibited by acts of 

 commission, which force themselves on the attention ; 

 whereas good more commonly consists in abstention, in 

 the inhibitions, the self-denial which escapes observation, 

 and can only be inferred. With the clue gained from a study 

 of the general facts of evolution, we may regard it as pro 

 bable that the increase on both sides of the moral equation 

 has been approximately even, and that neither shows a 

 decided balance in its favour when compared with the other. 



