CHAPTER IV 



VALUATIONS OF PLEASURE AND PAIN 



UP to this point our attention has been engaged by 

 the problem of values in its most general aspect ; that 

 is to say, with reference to a final end that is universal, 

 and embraces all the various and conflicting ends of human 

 purpose. We may now proceed to consider what are the 

 values assigned by the general opinion of mankind to the 

 special principles of pleasure and pain, when regarded 

 as determinants of action. 



We have found, it will be remembered, that the end to 

 which values are relative is not empirical, but transcen 

 dental ; and that, as it is beyond the range of empirical 

 knowledge, we are unable to employ it as a standard for 

 measuring the relative values of different kinds of impulse 

 or of conduct. There are, in fact, only two data for ascer 

 taining values. Of these, the first is distance from zero, 

 or, in more intelligible words, lateness of appearance in an 

 evolution in which the only recognizable universal principle 

 is a gradual concentration of force. But this, by itself, is 

 not sufficient, inasmuch as evil tendencies, or minus values, 

 increase pari passu with tendencies to good. To lateness 

 of appearance must, therefore, be added consonance with 

 the aims of forward evolution. Lately evolved evils, on 

 the contrary, are the gathering forces of degeneration. 

 History leaves us little doubt as to which forces have 

 favoured development in the past, and which have been their 

 opponents, and it is reasonable to infer that the same forces 

 will continue to act in the same directions ; but the safest 

 guide, and the most easy to consult, is to be found in the 

 general opinions of mankind. That men do approve 

 of conduct which is in the direction of, and tends to pro 

 mote, further evolution, and that they abhor all conduct 



