136 ETHICAL ASPECTS OF EVOLUTION 



becomes his duty, and is by that term distinguished from 

 actions which are merely good. There may, therefore, be 

 a conflict between two good impulses, but there can never 

 be a conflict of duties. A man may wish that he could 

 follow both of two conflicting impulses, but it will remain 

 a mere velleity ; his will will not be engaged. In such a case 

 there is often long hesitation, but the decision, so long as 

 it remains purely moral, will never be based on a calculation 

 of resultant advantages ; the appeal will be to the conscience 

 itself. The conception of a command as categoric, and 

 independent of results, does not involve the conclusion that 

 when once a principle has been recognized as good it must 

 never be abandoned. Principles which are recognized as 

 morally good must often be sacrificed when opposed by other 

 principles which are recognized as morally better ; that is to 

 say, when the command, though equally categoric, is of 

 superior cogency. The commands to tell the truth and to 

 serve one s country are equally categoric and independent 

 of results, but they may easily conflict, and, when that 

 happens, one or the other must be disregarded. If the 

 choice is to tell an untruth, it is because the resultant offence 

 to the conscience is not so great as what would be occa 

 sioned by the sacrifice of one s country. When the weaker 

 of two alternative commands is sacrificed, the conscience 

 is not offended at all ; on the contrary, it condemns the 

 refusal to break its own law when thereby the interests of 

 the country are imperilled. 



The next question to be considered is this : How are 

 the degrees of our approbation and reprobation determined ? 

 On what principle do we give the preference to one line 

 of conduct over another when both are good ? Leaving 

 aside questions of teleology, the answer must be that 

 in each individual the strength of the condemnation or 

 approval will be proportionate to the strength of the in 

 stinctive reaction ; of which, indeed, it is merely a trans 

 lation ; and this, again, will be determined by his inherited 

 character, as modified by his education. When alternative 

 courses are presented to him, both by themselves good, his 



