472 THE PERMIAN PERIOD 



period is best looked upon as a transition period from the Carbonifer- 

 ous to the Trias, and so from the Paleozoic to the Mesozoic. Its 

 close relationship to the underlying system in some places, and to 

 the overlying system in others, is therefore to be expected. 



Foreign Permian 



Europe. In Europe, as in America, the Carboniferous period 

 was brought to a close by very considerable changes, for much of 

 the area which had been receiving deposits during that period was 

 exposed to erosion at its close. Subsequently, much of the same 

 surface was again the site of deposition, partly from fresh and partly 

 from salt waters. The system is here much more distinct from the 

 Carboniferous than in eastern North America. 



In western and central Europe, the Lower Permian (Rothlie- 

 gende) consists of a series of clastic formations, together with a large 

 amount of igneous rock, in the form of lava-sheets, dikes, and pyro- 

 clastic material. The formations and their fossils show that much 

 of the sediment was accumulated in inland seas, and in salt and 

 fresh lakes. Gypsum, salt, and a meager fauna of dwarfed and 

 stunted species are among its distinctive marks. But the sea some- 

 times had access to the inland areas of sedimentation, as fossils 

 show. The shallow-water or subaeriai origin of much of the Per- 

 mian is shown by the sun-cracks, rain-pittings, ripple-marks, tracks 

 of terrestrial and amphibious animals, etc. In keeping with the 

 conditions of its origin the Rothliegende contains some coal. 



Especial interest attaches to the conglomerates and breccias, 

 because of their likeness to glacial drift. The conglomerate is wide- 

 spread, and in places contains bowlders which have been trans- 

 ported great distances; but its glacial origin has not been proved. 



The Upper Permian of western and central Europe (the Zech- 

 stein} is unlike the Lower in several important respects. It contains 

 much more limestone and dolomite, but neither coal, igneous rock, 

 nor, except at its very base, conglomerate. From the stunted 

 aspect of the fossils, and from the association of the dolomite with 

 gypsum, salt, etc., it has been thought that the limestone and 

 dolomite may be largely chemical precipitates. Some parts of the 

 Permian are, however, of marine origin. 



The Upper Permian of central and western Europe contains the 

 thickest mass of salt known. Near Berlin, one body of salt has 

 been penetrated about 4,000 feet, without reaching its bottom. It 



