550 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS. 



It was pointed out in 319 that during the pastoral stage, 

 it is impracticable to assign to each member of the family- 

 community, or to each of its dependents, such part of the pro 

 duce or other property as is proportionate to the value of his 

 labour. Though in the case of Jacob and Laban the bargain 

 made for services was one into which some idea of equiva 

 lence entered, yet it was an extremely rude idea ; and by no 

 such bargains could numerous transactions, or transactions of 

 smaller kinds, be effected. On asking what must happen 

 when the patriarchal group, becoming settled, assumes one or 

 other enlarged form, we see that reverence for traditional 

 usages, and the necessity of union for mutual defence, con 

 spire to maintain the system of joint production and joint 

 consumption : individualization of property is still hindered. 

 Though under such conditions each person establishes private 

 ownership in respect of things on which he has expended 

 separate labour, or things received in exchange for such 

 products of his separate labour ; yet only a small amount of 

 property thus distinguished as private, can be acquired. The 

 greater part of his labour, mixed with that of others, brings 

 returns inseparable from the returns of their labours ; and the 

 united returns must therefore be enjoyed in common. But 

 as fast as it becomes safer to dispense with the protection of 

 the family-group ; and as fast as increasing commercial inter 

 course opens careers for those who leave their groups ; and as 

 fast as the use of money and measures gives definiteness to 

 exchanges ; there come opportunities for accumulating indi 

 vidual possessions, as distinguished from joint possessions. 

 And since among those who labour together and live together, 

 there will inevitably be some who feel restive under the 

 imposed restraints, and also some (usually the same) who 

 feel dissatisfied with the equal sharing among those whose 

 labours are not of equal values ; it is inferable that these 

 opportunities will be seized : private ownership will spread 

 at the expense of public ownership. Some illustrations 

 may be given. Speaking of the family-communities of the 



