THE MILITANT TYPE OF SOCIETY. 589 



increased amount for the augmented army was authorized for 

 the seven years then following : steps obviously surrendering 

 popular checks on Imperial power. Simultaneously, military 

 officialism has been in two ways replacing civil officialism, 

 Subaltern officers are rewarded for long services by appoint 

 ments to civil posts local communes being forced to give 

 them the preference to civilians ; and not a few members of 

 the higher civil service, and of the universities, as well as 

 teachers in the public schools, having served as &quot; volunteers 

 of one year,&quot; become commissioned officers of the Landwehr. 

 During the struggles of the so-called Kulturkampf, the eccle 

 siastical organization became more subordinated by the 

 political. Priests suspended by bishops were maintained in 

 their offices; it was made penal for a clergyman publicly to 

 take part against the government ; a recalcitrant bishop had 

 his salary stopped ; the curriculum for ecclesiastics was pre 

 scribed by the State, and examination by State-officials re 

 quired ; church discipline was subjected to State-approval ; 

 and a power of expelling rebellious clergy from the country 

 was established. Passing to the industrial activities we may 

 note, first, that through sundry steps, from 1873 onwards, 

 there has been a progressive transfer of railways into the 

 hands of the State ; so that, partly by original construction 

 (mainly of lines for military purposes), and partly by pur 

 chase, three-fourths of ail Prussian railways have been made 

 government property ; and the same percentage holds in the 

 other German States : the aim being eventually to make 

 them all Imperial. Trade interferences have been extended 

 in various ways by protectionist tariffs, by revival of the 

 usury laws, by restrictions on Sunday labour. Through its 

 postal service the State has assumed industrial functions 

 presents acceptances, receives money on bills of exchange 

 that are due, as also on ordinary bills, which it gets receipted; 

 and until stopped by shopkeepers protests, undertook to pro 

 cure books from publishers. Lastly there come the measures 

 for extending, directly and indirectly, the control over populai 



